Constraints and adjustments in Italy's policy toward Israel

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 38, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 63-94

  Abadi, Jacob ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARAB WORLD; FOREIGN POLICY; INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

ISRAEL; ITALY;

EID: 0036772707     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/714004483     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. Linus, 'Italy's Low-Profile Strategy in the Middle East', in Lucio Chracciolo et al. (eds.), What Italy Stands For (Washington, DC: Centre of Strategic and International Studies, 1997), p.52.
2. T. Herzl, The Jewish State [in Hebrew] (Nazareth: Yediot Aharonot, 1978), p.28; M. Weisgal et al. (eds.), The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann (Jerusalem: The Israeli Universities Press, 1975), Vol.VII, No.33: Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Stories [in Hebrew], Ktavim VII (Jerusalem: E. Jabotinsky, 1949), p.221. Shimon Peres who later became Israel's prime minister once said that the Middle East is the creation of Western writers and that 'We are not nearer Saudi Arabia or Iraq than Italy or Greece, certainly not culturally or even geographically'. He argued that there was need to 'de-Middle Easternize' Israel and that Israelis should strive to come closer to Europe. See Peres' interview with Michael Brecher. The Foreign Policy System of Israel: Setting, Images, Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), p.358. Likewise, Likud leader Yitzhak Shamir told the Knesset that 'our linkage to the European continent emanates from many roots whose origins are to be found in the history of its nations since time immemorial to this day', Knesset Proceedings [in Hebrew], 10 Oct. 1983.
3. T. Herzl, The Jewish State [in Hebrew] (Nazareth: Yediot Aharonot, 1978), p.28; M. Weisgal et al. (eds.), The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann (Jerusalem: The Israeli Universities Press, 1975), Vol.VII, No.33: Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Stories [in Hebrew], Ktavim VII (Jerusalem: E. Jabotinsky, 1949), p.221. Shimon Peres who later became Israel's prime minister once said that the Middle East is the creation of Western writers and that 'We are not nearer Saudi Arabia or Iraq than Italy or Greece, certainly not culturally or even geographically'. He argued that there was need to 'de-Middle Easternize' Israel and that Israelis should strive to come closer to Europe. See Peres' interview with Michael Brecher. The Foreign Policy System of Israel: Setting, Images, Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), p.358. Likewise, Likud leader Yitzhak Shamir told the Knesset that 'our linkage to the European continent emanates from many roots whose origins are to be found in the history of its nations since time immemorial to this day', Knesset Proceedings [in Hebrew], 10 Oct. 1983.
4. T. Herzl, The Jewish State [in Hebrew] (Nazareth: Yediot Aharonot, 1978), p.28; M. Weisgal et al. (eds.), The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann (Jerusalem: The Israeli Universities Press, 1975), Vol.VII, No.33: Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Stories [in Hebrew], Ktavim VII (Jerusalem: E. Jabotinsky, 1949), p.221. Shimon Peres who later became Israel's prime minister once said that the Middle East is the creation of Western writers and that 'We are not nearer Saudi Arabia or Iraq than Italy or Greece, certainly not culturally or even geographically'. He argued that there was need to 'de-Middle Easternize' Israel and that Israelis should strive to come closer to Europe. See Peres' interview with Michael Brecher. The Foreign Policy System of Israel: Setting, Images, Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), p.358. Likewise, Likud leader Yitzhak Shamir told the Knesset that 'our linkage to the European continent emanates from many roots whose origins are to be found in the history of its nations since time immemorial to this day', Knesset Proceedings [in Hebrew], 10 Oct. 1983.
5. T. Herzl, The Jewish State [in Hebrew] (Nazareth: Yediot Aharonot, 1978), p.28; M. Weisgal et al. (eds.), The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann (Jerusalem: The Israeli Universities Press, 1975), Vol.VII, No.33: Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Stories [in Hebrew], Ktavim VII (Jerusalem: E. Jabotinsky, 1949), p.221. Shimon Peres who later became Israel's prime minister once said that the Middle East is the creation of Western writers and that 'We are not nearer Saudi Arabia or Iraq than Italy or Greece, certainly not culturally or even geographically'. He argued that there was need to 'de-Middle Easternize' Israel and that Israelis should strive to come closer to Europe. See Peres' interview with Michael Brecher. The Foreign Policy System of Israel: Setting, Images, Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), p.358. Likewise, Likud leader Yitzhak Shamir told the Knesset that 'our linkage to the European continent emanates from many roots whose origins are to be found in the history of its nations since time immemorial to this day', Knesset Proceedings [in Hebrew], 10 Oct. 1983.
6. M. Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1982 (London: Longman, 1984), pp.331-2.
7. M. Hess, Rome and Jerusalem (New York: Philosophical Library, 1958), p.7.
8. V. Jabotinsky, Autobiographical Reminiscences [in Hebrew], Ktavim I (Jerusalem: E. Jabotinsky, 1958), pp.27-8.
9. Y. Shavit, The Mythologies of the Zionist Right Wing [in Hebrew] (Beit-Berl, Tel Aviv: Emda, n.d.), p.138.
10. S.M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991), p.298n.
11. J. Heller, The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror 1940-1949 (London and portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1995), pp.4, 25, 26, 28, 34, 53-4, 70, 78, 79.
12. J. Bowyer Bell, Terror Out of Zion: The Fight for Israeli Independence (London: Transaction, 1996), pp.178-81, 303-4.
13. Chaim Herzog who later became Israel's president relates in his memoirs how his father's appeal to Pope Pius XII to intervene on behalf of the Jews was rejected. According to Herzog, the Pope was 'most unhelpful and unsympathetic - and even hostile'. See C. Herzog, Living History: A Memoir (New York: Pantheon, 1996), p.70. According to John Cornwell who explored the topic from the secret archives of the Vatican, the Pope was not inclined to protest against the Nazi round-up at any stage. See J. Cornwell, Hitler's Pope: The Secret Story of Pope Pius XII (New York: Viking, 1999), p.316.
14. Chaim Herzog who later became Israel's president relates in his memoirs how his father's appeal to Pope Pius XII to intervene on behalf of the Jews was rejected. According to Herzog, the Pope was 'most unhelpful and unsympathetic - and even hostile'. See C. Herzog, Living History: A Memoir (New York: Pantheon, 1996), p.70. According to John Cornwell who explored the topic from the secret archives of the Vatican, the Pope was not inclined to protest against the Nazi round-up at any stage. See J. Cornwell, Hitler's Pope: The Secret Story of Pope Pius XII (New York: Viking, 1999), p.316.
15. A.L. Sachar, The Liberation of the Unwanted: From the Liberation of the Death Camps to the Founding of Israel (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983). pp.71-3.
16. Consider for example the voyage of the Pencho. D. Ofer, Escaping the Holocaust: Illegal Immigration to the Land of Israel, 1939-1944 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p.87.
17. H.M. Sachar, Israel and Europe: An Appraisal in History (New York: Knopf, 1999), p.79.
18. Gefen to Foreign Ministry, Israel State Archives (hereafter ISA) 2534/13, 3 Nov. 1954.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Genosar to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2515/5a, 28 June 1949.
23. Ben Zakai to Genosar, ISA 2515/5a, 6 July 1949.
24. Genosar to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2515/5a, 30 Aug. 1949.
25. Kedourie to Anver, ISA 2515/5b, 23 Jan. 23, 1950.
26. Genosar to Eytan, ISA 2515/5b, 30 March 1950.
27. A. Oron (ed.), 'A Survey of the Activities of the Israeli Mission until April 1, 1950', ISA 2517/11/b, 1 April 1950.
28. Oron to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2515/5b, 28 May 1950.
29. Kedourie to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2515/5b, 14 June 1950.
30. C. Duggan, A Concise History of Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p.251.
31. Gefen to Foreign Ministry, ISA2534/13, 3 Nov. 1954.
32. Halevi to Foreign Ministry, ISA2515/6, 5 Oct. 1951.
33. Avner to Halevi, ISA 2515/6, 17 Oct. 1951.
34. Israel's ambassador in Rome to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2531/30, 21 Oct. 1951.
35. Ilsar to Israeli Embassy in Rome, ISA 2515/7, 24 Feb. 1953.
36. V. Ostrovsky and C. Hoy, By Way of Deception (New York: St Martin's Press, 1990), p.133; I. Black and B. Morris, Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1991), p.73; D. Raviv and Y. Melman, Every Spy is a Prince: The Complete History of Israel's Intelligence Community (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990), pp.29, 191.
37. V. Ostrovsky and C. Hoy, By Way of Deception (New York: St Martin's Press, 1990), p.133; I. Black and B. Morris, Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1991), p.73; D. Raviv and Y. Melman, Every Spy is a Prince: The Complete History of Israel's Intelligence Community (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990), pp.29, 191.
38. V. Ostrovsky and C. Hoy, By Way of Deception (New York: St Martin's Press, 1990), p.133; I. Black and B. Morris, Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1991), p.73; D. Raviv and Y. Melman, Every Spy is a Prince: The Complete History of Israel's Intelligence Community (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990), pp.29, 191.
39. Sachar (note 13), Israel and Europe, p.253.
40. P. Merhav, The Israeli Left: History, Problems, Documents (New York: Barnes & Co, 1980), p.148.
41. Avni-Cheker to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/12, 30 Oct. 1951; Israel's Ambassador in Rome to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/12, 7 Nov. 1951.
42. Tsur to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/12, 24 Dec. 1951.
43. Avni to Avner, ISA 2534/12, 14 Feb. 1952.
44. Minutes of Meetings of Foreign Ministry Officials, ISA 2515/7, 16 Feb. 1953.
45. 'Per un'intesa italo-araba' Inslituto per l'oriente: Centro per le Relazioni Italo-Arabe', Roma, 3 April 1952.
46. Minutes of a Meeting of the Israeli Embassy from 2 Feb. 1953. ISA 2515/7, 2 Feb. 1953.
47. Bar-Yaacov to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2531/30, 27 July 1955.
48. Minutes of a Meeting of Foreign Ministry officials on 3 March 1953, ISA 2515/7.
49. Najar to Israeli Ambassador in Rome, ISA 2515/7, 12 March 1953.
50. Esteri (Rome), 15 Oct. 1953.
51. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2531/22, 24 Dec. 1953.
52. L'Avvisatore Marittimo (Genova), 13 Jan. 1954.
53. Sasson to Najar, ISA 2531/16, 7 March 1954.
54. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2532/6, 1 Oct. 1954.
55. Avni to Israel's Ambassador in Rome, ISA2534/13, 11 Oct. 1954.
56. A.P. Whitaker, Spain and the Defense of the West: Ally and Liability (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961), p.327; K.W. Deutch and L.J. Edinger, Germany Rejoins the Powers (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959), pp.227-32.
57. A.P. Whitaker, Spain and the Defense of the West: Ally and Liability (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961), p.327; K.W. Deutch and L.J. Edinger, Germany Rejoins the Powers (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959), pp.227-32.
58. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2515/8, 5 Nov. 1954.
59. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2531/22, 24 Nov. 1954.
60. Ben Yaacov to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2531/16, 4 April 1955.
61. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2515/8, 16 Dec. 1954.
62. Ron to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2517/14, 8 Feb. 1955.
63. Bar Yaacov to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2531/22, 18 March 1955.
64. Ben Yaacov to Foreign Ministry, ISA2534/13, 29 March 1955.
65. Foreign Minister to Ambassador in Rome, ISA 2534/14, 29 March 1956.
66. Al Ahram (Cairo), 2 Feb. 1956.
67. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2531/30, 10 Oct. 1955.
68. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/14, 13 Nov. 1955.
69. Genosar to Foreign Ministry. ISA 2515/b, 30 Nov. 1955.
70. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/14, 2, 7 Dec. 1955; Israel's Embassy in Ankara to Israel's Diplomatic Representation in Athens, ISA 2534/14, 9 Dec. 1955.
71. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/14, 2, 7 Dec. 1955; Israel's Embassy in Ankara to Israel's Diplomatic Representation in Athens, ISA 2534/14, 9 Dec. 1955.
72. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2517/11/b, 24 Jan. 1956; Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/14, 20 Dec. 1955 and 9 Feb. 1956.
73. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2517/11/b, 24 Jan. 1956; Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2534/14, 20 Dec. 1955 and 9 Feb. 1956.
74. Sasson to Foreign Minister, ISA 2534/14, 9 April 1956.
75. Sasson to Foreign Minister, ISA 2534/14, 22 April 1956.
76. Cited in N. Kogan, The Politics of Italian Foreign Policy (New York: Praeger), p.150.
77. Ibid.
78. Ibid.
79. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2532/6, 9 May 1956.
80. Sasson to Foreign Ministry, ISA 2515/8, 2 Nov. 1956.
81. Embassy in Rome to Foreign Ministry. ISA 2515/8, 4 Oct. 1956.
82. Cited in D. Neff, Warriors at Suez (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981), p.193.
83. Sasson to Eytan, ISA 1515/8, 24 Nov. 1956.
84. M. Dayan, Milestones: The Story of My Life [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1976), pp.394, 425; M. Golan, Shimon Peres: A Biography (New York: St Martin's Press, 1982), p.62.
85. M. Dayan, Milestones: The Story of My Life [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1976), pp.394, 425; M. Golan, Shimon Peres: A Biography (New York: St Martin's Press, 1982), p.62.
86. A. Eban, An Autobiography (New York: Random House, 1977), pp.482-3.
87. British Embassy in Tel Aviv to Foreign Office, Public Record Office (Kew Gardens, London [hereafter PRO]), FO/371, 134276, VR10322/1, 30 Sept. 1958.
88. Rundall to Hadow, PRO FO/371, 134276, VR10322, 2 Oct. 1958.
89. British Ambassador in Tel Aviv to Foreign Office, PRO FO/371, 138446, JM10345/2, 4 Dec. 1959.
90. British Ambassador in Rome to Home, PRO FO/371, 163714, CJ1022/1, 20 July 1962. See also Italian Information Office, Italian Report (July 1962), pp.9-12: Ward to Butler, PRO FO/371, 172215, RJ1022/2, 29 Oct. 1963.
91. British Ambassador in Rome to Home, PRO FO/371, 163714, CJ1022/1, 20 July 1962. See also Italian Information Office, Italian Report (July 1962), pp.9-12: Ward to Butler, PRO FO/371, 172215, RJ1022/2, 29 Oct. 1963.
92. British Ambassador in Rome to Home, PRO FO/371, 163714, CJ1022/1, 20 July 1962. See also Italian Information Office, Italian Report (July 1962), pp.9-12: Ward to Butler, PRO FO/371, 172215, RJ1022/2, 29 Oct. 1963.
93. Fletcher to Unwin, PRO FO/371, 189327, RJ103116/1, 28 Nov. 1966.
94. Golds to Brown, PRO FO/371, 189327, RJ103116/2, 2 Dec. 1966.
95. Jerusalem Post, 18 Jan. 1973; Sachar (note 13), Israel and Europe, pp.239-40, 282.
96. Jerusalem Post, 18 Jan. 1973; Sachar (note 13), Israel and Europe, pp.239-40, 282.
97. Jerusalem Post, 18, 21 Feb. and 26 March 1973.
98. W.H. Nelson and T.C.F. Prittie, The Economic War Against the Jews (New York: Random House. 1977), p.98.
99. Ibid., pp.47-9, 140-1.
100. S.M. Di Scala, Italy: From Revolution to Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), p.299.
101. Jerusalem Post, 28 March 1973.
102. Ibid., 11 May, 12 July 1973.
103. Ibid., 4 Feb. 1974; R. Drake, The Aldo Moro Murder Case (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp.30, 214; II Popolo (Rome), 16 March 1978.
104. Ibid., 4 Feb. 1974; R. Drake, The Aldo Moro Murder Case (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp.30, 214; II Popolo (Rome), 16 March 1978.
105. Ibid., 4 Feb. 1974; R. Drake, The Aldo Moro Murder Case (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp.30, 214; II Popolo (Rome), 16 March 1978.
106. Jerusalem Post, 17 May 1974, 18 April 1976; 13 Jan. 1977.
107. Ibid., 1, 18 Jan. and 1 Feb. 1982;
108. Drake (note 90), pp.47, 90, 211;
109. Panorama (Rome), 10 Oct. 1978.
110. Sachar (note 13), Israel and Europe, p.288.
111. Jerusalem Post, 11, 23 May 1979; 27 April, 28 Sept. 1980; 10 June 1981.
112. Jerusalem Post, 11 Nov. 1981.
113. Jerusalem Post, 25 Nov. 1981.
114. Jerusalem Post, 22 Nov. 1981.
115. Jerusalem Post, 8, 12 Jan. 1982.
116. Jerusalem Post, 12 May 1982.
117. Jerusalem Post, 16 May, 26 July 1982.
118. Jerusalem Post, 14 Sept. 1982.
119. Jerusalem Post, 16 Sept. 1982.
120. Jerusalem Post, 17 May 1983; 14 June 1984.
121. Jerusalem Post, 30 Sept., 6 Dec. 1984.
122. Jerusalem Post, 30 Sept., 6 Dec. 1984; 13 May 1985.
123. Jerusalem Post, 1 Jan., 14 May, 2, 10 Oct. 1985.
124. Jerusalem Post, 9, 23 Oct. 1985; 7, 8, 10 Nov. 1985.
125. Jerusalem Post, 19, 21 May 1986.
126. An Italian Parliament member tied himself to an electric pole at the al-Amari refugee camp near Ramallah in protest against Israeli policy. See Jerusalem Post, 17 Jan., 14, 15 Feb., 3 March 1988.
127. Jerusalem Post, 24 Feb., 1 Oct. 1987. 16 March 1988; Sachar (note 13), Israel and Europe, p.215.
128. Jerusalem Post, 24 Feb., 1 Oct. 1987. 16 March 1988; Sachar (note 13), Israel and Europe, p.215.
129. Jerusalem Post, 1, 21, 22 Jan. 1987.
130. S.M. Katz, Israel Versus Jibril: The Thirty-Year War against a Master Terrorist (New York: Paragon House, 1993), p.46.
131. K.B. Nasr, Arab and Israeli Terrorism: The Causes and Effects of Political Violence, 1936-1993 (London: McFarland, 1997), pp.86, 156.
132. Sachar (note 13), Israel and Europe, pp.241, 248, 251.
133. U. Savir, The Process: 1,100 Days That Changed the Middle East (New York: Random House, 1998), pp.178-9, 193.
134. Linus (note 1), pp.52, 77.