The childhood we have lost: When siblings were caregivers, 1900-1970

Journal of Social History

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2002, Pages

  Pollack, Eunice G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036744526     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2002.0105     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Quotes are from David Elkind, Ties That Stress: The New Family Imbalance (Cambridge, MA, 1994), pp. 58, 118-19 and Kay S. Hymowitz, Ready or Not: Why Treating Children as Small Adults Endangers Their Future-and Ours (New York, 1999), pp. 12-15.
2. Quotes are from David Elkind, Ties That Stress: The New Family Imbalance (Cambridge, MA, 1994), pp. 58, 118-19 and Kay S. Hymowitz, Ready or Not: Why Treating Children as Small Adults Endangers Their Future-and Ours (New York, 1999), pp. 12-15.
3. Psychological Summary, [1968] [Martelli], Family Counseling Facility [FCF]; Milton Rosenbaum, "Psychological Effects on the Child Raised by an Older Sibling," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33 (1963): 518; Joseph Adelson and Marjery J. Doehrman, "The Psychodynamic Approach to Adolescence," in Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, ed: Joseph Adelson (New York, 1980), p. 108; Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley, 1978), pp. 136-37, 173-77; Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Besieged (New York, 1977), p. 172. Quote is from Martelli. (In accordance with my contracts with the facilities whose records I utilize here, I have disguised the names of the patients and clinics. A key to the identities of records and clinics will be available from me or from Columbia University Library in 2004.)
4. Psychological Summary, [1968] [Martelli], Family Counseling Facility [FCF]; Milton Rosenbaum, "Psychological Effects on the Child Raised by an Older Sibling," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33 (1963): 518; Joseph Adelson and Marjery J. Doehrman, "The Psychodynamic Approach to Adolescence," in Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, ed: Joseph Adelson (New York, 1980), p. 108; Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley, 1978), pp. 136-37, 173-77; Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Besieged (New York, 1977), p. 172. Quote is from Martelli. (In accordance with my contracts with the facilities whose records I utilize here, I have disguised the names of the patients and clinics. A key to the identities of records and clinics will be available from me or from Columbia University Library in 2004.)
5. Psychological Summary, [1968] [Martelli], Family Counseling Facility [FCF]; Milton Rosenbaum, "Psychological Effects on the Child Raised by an Older Sibling," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33 (1963): 518; Joseph Adelson and Marjery J. Doehrman, "The Psychodynamic Approach to Adolescence," in Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, ed: Joseph Adelson (New York, 1980), p. 108; Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley, 1978), pp. 136-37, 173-77; Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Besieged (New York, 1977), p. 172. Quote is from Martelli. (In accordance with my contracts with the facilities whose records I utilize here, I have disguised the names of the patients and clinics. A key to the identities of records and clinics will be available from me or from Columbia University Library in 2004.)
6. Psychological Summary, [1968] [Martelli], Family Counseling Facility [FCF]; Milton Rosenbaum, "Psychological Effects on the Child Raised by an Older Sibling," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33 (1963): 518; Joseph Adelson and Marjery J. Doehrman, "The Psychodynamic Approach to Adolescence," in Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, ed: Joseph Adelson (New York, 1980), p. 108; Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley, 1978), pp. 136-37, 173-77; Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Besieged (New York, 1977), p. 172. Quote is from Martelli. (In accordance with my contracts with the facilities whose records I utilize here, I have disguised the names of the patients and clinics. A key to the identities of records and clinics will be available from me or from Columbia University Library in 2004.)
7. Beverly Stadum, Poor Women and Their Families: Hard Working Charity Cases, 1900-1930 (Albany, 1992), pp. 19-23, 39, 45-48, 83-84, 114; Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York, 1992), p. 230. Quotes are from Stadum.
8. Beverly Stadum, Poor Women and Their Families: Hard Working Charity Cases, 1900-1930 (Albany, 1992), pp. 19-23, 39, 45-48, 83-84, 114; Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York, 1992), p. 230. Quotes are from Stadum.
9. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (New York, 1985),pp. 105-8; J. Robert Wegs, Growing up Working Class: Continuity and Change Among Viennese Youth, 1890-1938 (University Park, PA, 1989), pp. 87-88; Sydney Stahl Weinberg, The World of Our Mothers: The Lives of Jewish Immigrant Women (Chapel Hill, 1988), p. 156. See too: Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman's Place: An Oral History of Working-Class Women, 1890-1940 (New York, 1984), pp. 22-25 and Leslie Woodcock Tentler, Wage-Earning Women: Industrial Work and Family Life in the United States, 1900-1930 (New York, 1979), pp. 157-59.
10. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (New York, 1985),pp. 105-8; J. Robert Wegs, Growing up Working Class: Continuity and Change Among Viennese Youth, 1890-1938 (University Park, PA, 1989), pp. 87-88; Sydney Stahl Weinberg, The World of Our Mothers: The Lives of Jewish Immigrant Women (Chapel Hill, 1988), p. 156. See too: Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman's Place: An Oral History of Working-Class Women, 1890-1940 (New York, 1984), pp. 22-25 and Leslie Woodcock Tentler, Wage-Earning Women: Industrial Work and Family Life in the United States, 1900-1930 (New York, 1979), pp. 157-59.
11. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (New York, 1985),pp. 105-8; J. Robert Wegs, Growing up Working Class: Continuity and Change Among Viennese Youth, 1890-1938 (University Park, PA, 1989), pp. 87-88; Sydney Stahl Weinberg, The World of Our Mothers: The Lives of Jewish Immigrant Women (Chapel Hill, 1988), p. 156. See too: Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman's Place: An Oral History of Working-Class Women, 1890-1940 (New York, 1984), pp. 22-25 and Leslie Woodcock Tentler, Wage-Earning Women: Industrial Work and Family Life in the United States, 1900-1930 (New York, 1979), pp. 157-59.
12. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (New York, 1985),pp. 105-8; J. Robert Wegs, Growing up Working Class: Continuity and Change Among Viennese Youth, 1890-1938 (University Park, PA, 1989), pp. 87-88; Sydney Stahl Weinberg, The World of Our Mothers: The Lives of Jewish Immigrant Women (Chapel Hill, 1988), p. 156. See too: Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman's Place: An Oral History of Working-Class Women, 1890-1940 (New York, 1984), pp. 22-25 and Leslie Woodcock Tentler, Wage-Earning Women: Industrial Work and Family Life in the United States, 1900-1930 (New York, 1979), pp. 157-59.
13. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (New York, 1985),pp. 105-8; J. Robert Wegs, Growing up Working Class: Continuity and Change Among Viennese Youth, 1890-1938 (University Park, PA, 1989), pp. 87-88; Sydney Stahl Weinberg, The World of Our Mothers: The Lives of Jewish Immigrant Women (Chapel Hill, 1988), p. 156. See too: Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman's Place: An Oral History of Working-Class Women, 1890-1940 (New York, 1984), pp. 22-25 and Leslie Woodcock Tentler, Wage-Earning Women: Industrial Work and Family Life in the United States, 1900-1930 (New York, 1979), pp. 157-59.
14. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 106-7, 110, 113-14; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York, 1988), p. 94; Brody, "A New York Childhood," The American Mercury XIV (1928): 60, cited in Nasaw, pp. 106-7. See too: Roberts, A Woman's Place, pp. 23, 34. Only Linda Gordon, whose focus was on cases of child abuse, acknowledged the intense conflicts that flared as mothers "overwork[ed]" their daughters and "demanded that [they] share responsibility for domestic work." Gordon did not distinguish, however, between the girls' responses to their childcare duties and their other household tasks, and, more importantly, sustained the discussion only for one paragraph. Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston 1880-1960 (New York, 1988), pp. 181-83.
15. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 106-7, 110, 113-14; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York, 1988), p. 94; Brody, "A New York Childhood," The American Mercury XIV (1928): 60, cited in Nasaw, pp. 106-7. See too: Roberts, A Woman's Place, pp. 23, 34. Only Linda Gordon, whose focus was on cases of child abuse, acknowledged the intense conflicts that flared as mothers "overwork[ed]" their daughters and "demanded that [they] share responsibility for domestic work." Gordon did not distinguish, however, between the girls' responses to their childcare duties and their other household tasks, and, more importantly, sustained the discussion only for one paragraph. Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston 1880-1960 (New York, 1988), pp. 181-83.
16. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 106-7, 110, 113-14; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York, 1988), p. 94; Brody, "A New York Childhood," The American Mercury XIV (1928): 60, cited in Nasaw, pp. 106-7. See too: Roberts, A Woman's Place, pp. 23, 34. Only Linda Gordon, whose focus was on cases of child abuse, acknowledged the intense conflicts that flared as mothers "overwork[ed]" their daughters and "demanded that [they] share responsibility for domestic work." Gordon did not distinguish, however, between the girls' responses to their childcare duties and their other household tasks, and, more importantly, sustained the discussion only for one paragraph. Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston 1880-1960 (New York, 1988), pp. 181-83.
17. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 106-7, 110, 113-14; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York, 1988), p. 94; Brody, "A New York Childhood," The American Mercury XIV (1928): 60, cited in Nasaw, pp. 106-7. See too: Roberts, A Woman's Place, pp. 23, 34. Only Linda Gordon, whose focus was on cases of child abuse, acknowledged the intense conflicts that flared as mothers "overwork[ed]" their daughters and "demanded that [they] share responsibility for domestic work." Gordon did not distinguish, however, between the girls' responses to their childcare duties and their other household tasks, and, more importantly, sustained the discussion only for one paragraph. Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston 1880-1960 (New York, 1988), pp. 181-83.
18. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 106-7, 110, 113-14; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York, 1988), p. 94; Brody, "A New York Childhood," The American Mercury XIV (1928): 60, cited in Nasaw, pp. 106-7. See too: Roberts, A Woman's Place, pp. 23, 34. Only Linda Gordon, whose focus was on cases of child abuse, acknowledged the intense conflicts that flared as mothers "overwork[ed]" their daughters and "demanded that [they] share responsibility for domestic work." Gordon did not distinguish, however, between the girls' responses to their childcare duties and their other household tasks, and, more importantly, sustained the discussion only for one paragraph. Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston 1880-1960 (New York, 1988), pp. 181-83.
19. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107, 113; Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, pp. 85-88, 94; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25; Tentler, Wage-Earning Women, p. 160; Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 213-14. The first three quotes are from Mintz and Kellogg; the last is from E. P. Thompson, "Happy Families," New Society, 8 September 1977, p. 501, quoted approvingly by Coontz, p. 213.
20. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107, 113; Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, pp. 85-88, 94; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25; Tentler, Wage-Earning Women, p. 160; Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 213-14. The first three quotes are from Mintz and Kellogg; the last is from E. P. Thompson, "Happy Families," New Society, 8 September 1977, p. 501, quoted approvingly by Coontz, p. 213.
21. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107, 113; Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, pp. 85-88, 94; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25; Tentler, Wage-Earning Women, p. 160; Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 213-14. The first three quotes are from Mintz and Kellogg; the last is from E. P. Thompson, "Happy Families," New Society, 8 September 1977, p. 501, quoted approvingly by Coontz, p. 213.
22. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107, 113; Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, pp. 85-88, 94; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25; Tentler, Wage-Earning Women, p. 160; Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 213-14. The first three quotes are from Mintz and Kellogg; the last is from E. P. Thompson, "Happy Families," New Society, 8 September 1977, p. 501, quoted approvingly by Coontz, p. 213.
23. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107, 113; Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, pp. 85-88, 94; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25; Tentler, Wage-Earning Women, p. 160; Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 213-14. The first three quotes are from Mintz and Kellogg; the last is from E. P. Thompson, "Happy Families," New Society, 8 September 1977, p. 501, quoted approvingly by Coontz, p. 213.
24. Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107, 113; Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, pp. 85-88, 94; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25; Tentler, Wage-Earning Women, p. 160; Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 213-14. The first three quotes are from Mintz and Kellogg; the last is from E. P. Thompson, "Happy Families," New Society, 8 September 1977, p. 501, quoted approvingly by Coontz, p. 213.
25. Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 130, 139, 212-13; Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 153; Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107-8.
26. Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 130, 139, 212-13; Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 153; Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107-8.
27. Coontz, The Way We Never Were, pp. 130, 139, 212-13; Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 153; Nasaw, Children of the City, pp. 107-8.
28. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, p. 88; Stadum, Poor Women, pp. 39, 59, 84; Wegs, Growing Up Working Class, pp. 87-88; Nasaw, Children of the City, p. 112; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25. Quote is from Mintz and Kellogg.
29. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, p. 88; Stadum, Poor Women, pp. 39, 59, 84; Wegs, Growing Up Working Class, pp. 87-88; Nasaw, Children of the City, p. 112; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25. Quote is from Mintz and Kellogg.
30. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, p. 88; Stadum, Poor Women, pp. 39, 59, 84; Wegs, Growing Up Working Class, pp. 87-88; Nasaw, Children of the City, p. 112; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25. Quote is from Mintz and Kellogg.
31. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, p. 88; Stadum, Poor Women, pp. 39, 59, 84; Wegs, Growing Up Working Class, pp. 87-88; Nasaw, Children of the City, p. 112; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25. Quote is from Mintz and Kellogg.
32. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, p. 88; Stadum, Poor Women, pp. 39, 59, 84; Wegs, Growing Up Working Class, pp. 87-88; Nasaw, Children of the City, p. 112; Roberts, A Woman's Place, p. 25. Quote is from Mintz and Kellogg.
33. Thomas S. Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence and Child-Caretaking: A Cross-Cultural View," in Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance Across the Lifespan, eds: Michael Lamb and Brian Sutton-Smith (Hillsdale, N.J., 1982), pp. 307-12; Thomas S. Weisner and Ronald Gallimore, "My Brother's Keeper: Child and Sibling Caretaking," Current Anthropology (June 1977): 178-81; Emmy E. Werner, "Child Nurturance in Other Cultures: A Perspective," in Child Nurturance v. 2: Patterns of Supplementary Parenting, eds: Marjorie Kostelnik, Albert Rabin, Lillian Phenice, and Anna Soderman (New York, 1982), p. 224; Susan Scarf Merrill, The Accidental Bond: The Power of Sibling Relationships (New York, 1995), p. 145; Wyndol Furman and Duane Buhrmester, "The Contribution of Siblings and Peers to the Parenting Process," in Child Nurturance, p. 70. Quotes are from Weisner, Werner, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, Brian Sutton-Smith (Comment in Weisner and Gallimore), Sutton-Smith, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, and Weisner and Gallimore, resp.
34. Thomas S. Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence and Child-Caretaking: A Cross-Cultural View," in Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance Across the Lifespan, eds: Michael Lamb and Brian Sutton-Smith (Hillsdale, N.J., 1982), pp. 307-12; Thomas S. Weisner and Ronald Gallimore, "My Brother's Keeper: Child and Sibling Caretaking," Current Anthropology (June 1977): 178-81; Emmy E. Werner, "Child Nurturance in Other Cultures: A Perspective," in Child Nurturance v. 2: Patterns of Supplementary Parenting, eds: Marjorie Kostelnik, Albert Rabin, Lillian Phenice, and Anna Soderman (New York, 1982), p. 224; Susan Scarf Merrill, The Accidental Bond: The Power of Sibling Relationships (New York, 1995), p. 145; Wyndol Furman and Duane Buhrmester, "The Contribution of Siblings and Peers to the Parenting Process," in Child Nurturance, p. 70. Quotes are from Weisner, Werner, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, Brian Sutton-Smith (Comment in Weisner and Gallimore), Sutton-Smith, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, and Weisner and Gallimore, resp.
35. Thomas S. Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence and Child-Caretaking: A Cross-Cultural View," in Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance Across the Lifespan, eds: Michael Lamb and Brian Sutton-Smith (Hillsdale, N.J., 1982), pp. 307-12; Thomas S. Weisner and Ronald Gallimore, "My Brother's Keeper: Child and Sibling Caretaking," Current Anthropology (June 1977): 178-81; Emmy E. Werner, "Child Nurturance in Other Cultures: A Perspective," in Child Nurturance v. 2: Patterns of Supplementary Parenting, eds: Marjorie Kostelnik, Albert Rabin, Lillian Phenice, and Anna Soderman (New York, 1982), p. 224; Susan Scarf Merrill, The Accidental Bond: The Power of Sibling Relationships (New York, 1995), p. 145; Wyndol Furman and Duane Buhrmester, "The Contribution of Siblings and Peers to the Parenting Process," in Child Nurturance, p. 70. Quotes are from Weisner, Werner, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, Brian Sutton-Smith (Comment in Weisner and Gallimore), Sutton-Smith, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, and Weisner and Gallimore, resp.
36. Thomas S. Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence and Child-Caretaking: A Cross-Cultural View," in Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance Across the Lifespan, eds: Michael Lamb and Brian Sutton-Smith (Hillsdale, N.J., 1982), pp. 307-12; Thomas S. Weisner and Ronald Gallimore, "My Brother's Keeper: Child and Sibling Caretaking," Current Anthropology (June 1977): 178-81; Emmy E. Werner, "Child Nurturance in Other Cultures: A Perspective," in Child Nurturance v. 2: Patterns of Supplementary Parenting, eds: Marjorie Kostelnik, Albert Rabin, Lillian Phenice, and Anna Soderman (New York, 1982), p. 224; Susan Scarf Merrill, The Accidental Bond: The Power of Sibling Relationships (New York, 1995), p. 145; Wyndol Furman and Duane Buhrmester, "The Contribution of Siblings and Peers to the Parenting Process," in Child Nurturance, p. 70. Quotes are from Weisner, Werner, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, Brian Sutton-Smith (Comment in Weisner and Gallimore), Sutton-Smith, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, and Weisner and Gallimore, resp.
37. Thomas S. Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence and Child-Caretaking: A Cross-Cultural View," in Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance Across the Lifespan, eds: Michael Lamb and Brian Sutton-Smith (Hillsdale, N.J., 1982), pp. 307-12; Thomas S. Weisner and Ronald Gallimore, "My Brother's Keeper: Child and Sibling Caretaking," Current Anthropology (June 1977): 178-81; Emmy E. Werner, "Child Nurturance in Other Cultures: A Perspective," in Child Nurturance v. 2: Patterns of Supplementary Parenting, eds: Marjorie Kostelnik, Albert Rabin, Lillian Phenice, and Anna Soderman (New York, 1982), p. 224; Susan Scarf Merrill, The Accidental Bond: The Power of Sibling Relationships (New York, 1995), p. 145; Wyndol Furman and Duane Buhrmester, "The Contribution of Siblings and Peers to the Parenting Process," in Child Nurturance, p. 70. Quotes are from Weisner, Werner, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, Brian Sutton-Smith (Comment in Weisner and Gallimore), Sutton-Smith, Weisner and Gallimore, Weisner, and Weisner and Gallimore, resp.
38. The quote is from David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 117.
39. Theodore Lidz, The Person: His Development Throughout the Life Cycle (New York, 1968), p. 520; Stephen Bank and Michael D. Kahn, "Freudian Siblings," Psychoanalytic Review 67 (Winter 1980): 493; Stephen Bank, "Remembering and Reinterpreting Sibling Bonds," in Children's Sibling Relationships: Developmental and Clinical Issues, eds: Frits Boer and Judy Dunn (Hillsdale, N. J., 1992), p. 140; Judy Dunn, "State of the Art: Siblings," The Psychologist 13 (May 2000): 245. Quotes are from Lidz, Bank/Kahn, Bank, and Dunn, resp.
40. Theodore Lidz, The Person: His Development Throughout the Life Cycle (New York, 1968), p. 520; Stephen Bank and Michael D. Kahn, "Freudian Siblings," Psychoanalytic Review 67 (Winter 1980): 493; Stephen Bank, "Remembering and Reinterpreting Sibling Bonds," in Children's Sibling Relationships: Developmental and Clinical Issues, eds: Frits Boer and Judy Dunn (Hillsdale, N. J., 1992), p. 140; Judy Dunn, "State of the Art: Siblings," The Psychologist 13 (May 2000): 245. Quotes are from Lidz, Bank/Kahn, Bank, and Dunn, resp.
41. Theodore Lidz, The Person: His Development Throughout the Life Cycle (New York, 1968), p. 520; Stephen Bank and Michael D. Kahn, "Freudian Siblings," Psychoanalytic Review 67 (Winter 1980): 493; Stephen Bank, "Remembering and Reinterpreting Sibling Bonds," in Children's Sibling Relationships: Developmental and Clinical Issues, eds: Frits Boer and Judy Dunn (Hillsdale, N. J., 1992), p. 140; Judy Dunn, "State of the Art: Siblings," The Psychologist 13 (May 2000): 245. Quotes are from Lidz, Bank/Kahn, Bank, and Dunn, resp.
42. Theodore Lidz, The Person: His Development Throughout the Life Cycle (New York, 1968), p. 520; Stephen Bank and Michael D. Kahn, "Freudian Siblings," Psychoanalytic Review 67 (Winter 1980): 493; Stephen Bank, "Remembering and Reinterpreting Sibling Bonds," in Children's Sibling Relationships: Developmental and Clinical Issues, eds: Frits Boer and Judy Dunn (Hillsdale, N. J., 1992), p. 140; Judy Dunn, "State of the Art: Siblings," The Psychologist 13 (May 2000): 245. Quotes are from Lidz, Bank/Kahn, Bank, and Dunn, resp.
43. Such longings may not surface frequently in societies in which children are attended almost exclusively by siblings, where the young "tend to be ... uncomfortable in intensive interactions with adults." But the patients considered here had been raised in a system in transition, and they dwelled on their chronically frustrated desires for access to their mother. Quote is from Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence," p. 309.
44. Victoria H. Bedford, "Ambivalence in Adult Sibling Relationships," Journal of Family Issues 10 (June 1989): 211-22; Bank, "Remembering," pp. 143, 145, 149. Quotes are from Bedford.
45. Victoria H. Bedford, "Ambivalence in Adult Sibling Relationships," Journal of Family Issues 10 (June 1989): 211-22; Bank, "Remembering," pp. 143, 145, 149. Quotes are from Bedford.
46. Emmy E. Werner, "Protective Factors and Individual Resilience," in Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, eds: Samuel J. Meisels and Jack P. Shonkoff (New York, 1990), pp. 98-100.
47. An in-house conference of therapists [hereinafter cited as Conference], 22 October 1954; Thematic Apperception Test [TAT], 1955 [Fischer], FCF; Conference, 15 February 1957 [Dumont], FCF; Treatment, December 1957-June 1958 [Lane], FCF; Conference, 24 June 1955 [MacGowan], FCF; Sessions: 14 November 1966, 17 April, 18 July 1967, September 1968-March 1969 [Cernigliaro], Parents' and Children's Counseling Center [PCCC]; Session, 18 September 1959; Conference, 8 June 1960 [Stein], FCF; Session, 28 February 1947 [Dimitriyevich], Comprehensive Therapy Center [CTC].
48. Sessions: February-May 1955, December 1955-September 1957 [Dumont]; Session, 4 February 1957 [Anderson], FCF; Sessions: 14 November, 14 December 1952 [Simmons], CTC; Session, 29 May 1948 [Reynolds], CTC; Sessions: 6 October 1950, 4 January 1951 [Rye], CTC; Sessions to June 1954; Conference, 22 October 1954; TAT, 1955 [Fischer]; Session, 19 May 1955; Conference, 8 June 1960 [Stein]; Session, 20 June 1946 [Sullivan], CTC; Session, 28 February 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Psychological and Interaction Test Reports, March 1967 [Beck], Family Therapy Center [FTC]; Summary, 18 July 1967 [Cernigliaro].
49. Sessions, 31 December 1948-14 March 1949 [Rosenzweig], Parents' and Children's Mental Health Center [PCMHC]; Sessions, May 1958 [Klein], FCF; TAT [Fischer]; Intake, 3 January 1961 [Robey], CTC; Conference, 8 June 1960 [Stein]; Intake, 6 January 1961; Closing, [7 June 1963] [Neumann], CTC; Sessions: [February], 4 October 1948; Social History, [n.d.] [Grey], CTC; Report, [1966] [Labowitz], FTC.
50. Conference, 22 July 1959 [Stein]; Sessions, [February 1948] [Grey]; Sessions: 20 November 1947, 31 December 1948-14 March 1949 [Rosenzweig]; Sessions: 21 October 1954, 12 February 1958 [Klein]; Diagnostic Evaluation, July-September 1967; Notes, October-December 1967 [MacGregor], FTC; Intake, 31 January 1967 [Wald], FTC; Session, November 1955 [Dumont]; Session, 29 May 1948 [Reynolds]; Intakes: 6, 20 January 1961 [Neumann]; Sessions: 9 May, 20 June 1946 [Sullivan]; Session, 10 June 1943 [Bloom], PCMHC; Session, 4 February 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Session, 9 February 1954; Social Service, 24 June 1955 [MacGowan].
51. Treatment, December 1957-June 1958; Group Therapy, 4 February 1959 [Lane]; Sessions: 8 October, 5 November 1954 [Blake], FCF; Psychological Report, [January 1959] [Romano], FCF.
52. Sessions, May 1967 [Beck]; Session, 1 February 1938; Conference, 14 February 1938 [DiGiovanni], FCF; Sessions to 28 February 1955 [Fischer]; Notes, October-December 1967 [MacGregor]; Treatment, September 1961 [Levy], FCF; Session, 23 April 1948 [McGuire], CTC; Session, 20 January 1947; Conference, 29 January 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Sessions: 13 April 1948, 14 November 1952, 24, 30 July 1953; Closing, 27 April 1954 [Simmons].
53. Sessions: 3 September 1959, 7 April 1960; Conference, [n.d.] [Stein]; Sessions: 5 December 1966, 18 July 1967, September 1968-March 1969 [Cernigliaro]; Psychological Test Report, March 1967 [Beck]; Sessions, 7 November 1958-23 January 1959 [Klein]; Session, 15 September 1950 [Janssen], CTC; Session, 6 June 1946 [Sullivan]; Session, 17 March 1958 [Romano]; Sessions: 9 July, 20 November 1934, 1 April 1935, September 1935-July 1936 [Feinman], PCMHC; Session, 4 December 1940 [Schwartz], PCMHC; Psychological, [1958] [Martelli]; Conference, 24 June 1955 [MacGowan].
54. Rosenbaum, "Psychological Effects on the Child Raised by an Older Sibling," p. 519; Stephen P. Bank and Michael D. Kahn, The Sibling Bond (New York, 1982), p. 134; Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence," p. 312. Quotes are from Rosenbaum and Bank and Kahn.
55. Rosenbaum, "Psychological Effects on the Child Raised by an Older Sibling," p. 519; Stephen P. Bank and Michael D. Kahn, The Sibling Bond (New York, 1982), p. 134; Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence," p. 312. Quotes are from Rosenbaum and Bank and Kahn.
56. Rosenbaum, "Psychological Effects on the Child Raised by an Older Sibling," p. 519; Stephen P. Bank and Michael D. Kahn, The Sibling Bond (New York, 1982), p. 134; Weisner, "Sibling Interdependence," p. 312. Quotes are from Rosenbaum and Bank and Kahn.
57. Sessions: 14 April, 24 November 1959, 7 April 1960 [Stein]; Sessions: 20 June, 18 November 1946 [Sullivan]; Sessions: 17 March, December 1938, 8 February 1940, 31 July 1942 [Fowler], FCF; Session, 11 October 1967 [Soterakos], PCCC; Sessions: 19 March, 9 April 1941 [Schwartz]; Sessions: 3 March 1958, November 1961 [Lane]; Sessions: 4 February 1957, 3, 10 March 1958; [Anderson]; Sessions: 14, 21 June 1937 [Katz], PCMHC; Conferences: 24 June 1955, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Session, 8 October 1954 [Blake]; Sessions: 20, 22 January, 4 February, 6 March 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Session, 13 May 1940; Summary, 15 November 1944 [Caroli], General Counseling Facility [GCF].
58. Nor was such abuse confined to clinical populations. Recent studies have found serious physical and emotional abuse among siblings generally to be "far more common than is typically recognized." One study of a nationally representative sample discovered "severe" abuse in more than half the families tracked for one year. The incidence of abuse is particularly high, however, when there is inadequate parental supervision, or when a child is in charge. Moreover, recent surveys of the larger population have confirmed the enduring effect of the abuse on attenuating or severing sibling bonds. Brenda K. Bryant, "Sibling Caretaking: Providing Emotional Support during Middle Childhood," in Children's Sibling Relationships, p. 61; "Sibling Conflicts Leave Lasting Effects," Jet, 8 September 1997, p. 24+; Arthur Green, "Child Abuse by Siblings," Child Abuse and Neglect 8 (1984): 311. Quotes are from Bryant. Sessions: 14 April, 5 May, 24 November 1959, 7 April 1960 [Stein]; Sessions: 15 April 1954, February-May 1955, December 1955-September 1957; Conference, 1 May 1957 [Dumont]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro], Family Guidance Group [FGG]; Sessions: 16 January 1958, 22 October-3 December 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Group Therapy, 4 February 1959 [Lane]; Session, 8 October 1938 [Wexler], FCF; Diagnostic, 28 May 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Sessions: 25 July, 21 August, 12 September 1947 [McGuire]; Session, 9 October 1967 [Cernigliaro]; Conferences: 24 June 1955, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Session, 3 October 1934 [Feinman]; Sessions: 14 May 1948, 29 January, 14 November, 14 December 1952, 28 February 1953 [Simmons]; Session, 25 January 1951 [Rye].
59. Nor was such abuse confined to clinical populations. Recent studies have found serious physical and emotional abuse among siblings generally to be "far more common than is typically recognized." One study of a nationally representative sample discovered "severe" abuse in more than half the families tracked for one year. The incidence of abuse is particularly high, however, when there is inadequate parental supervision, or when a child is in charge. Moreover, recent surveys of the larger population have confirmed the enduring effect of the abuse on attenuating or severing sibling bonds. Brenda K. Bryant, "Sibling Caretaking: Providing Emotional Support during Middle Childhood," in Children's Sibling Relationships, p. 61; "Sibling Conflicts Leave Lasting Effects," Jet, 8 September 1997, p. 24+; Arthur Green, "Child Abuse by Siblings," Child Abuse and Neglect 8 (1984): 311. Quotes are from Bryant. Sessions: 14 April, 5 May, 24 November 1959, 7 April 1960 [Stein]; Sessions: 15 April 1954, February-May 1955, December 1955-September 1957; Conference, 1 May 1957 [Dumont]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro], Family Guidance Group [FGG]; Sessions: 16 January 1958, 22 October-3 December 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Group Therapy, 4 February 1959 [Lane]; Session, 8 October 1938 [Wexler], FCF; Diagnostic, 28 May 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Sessions: 25 July, 21 August, 12 September 1947 [McGuire]; Session, 9 October 1967 [Cernigliaro]; Conferences: 24 June 1955, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Session, 3 October 1934 [Feinman]; Sessions: 14 May 1948, 29 January, 14 November, 14 December 1952, 28 February 1953 [Simmons]; Session, 25 January 1951 [Rye].
60. Nor was such abuse confined to clinical populations. Recent studies have found serious physical and emotional abuse among siblings generally to be "far more common than is typically recognized." One study of a nationally representative sample discovered "severe" abuse in more than half the families tracked for one year. The incidence of abuse is particularly high, however, when there is inadequate parental supervision, or when a child is in charge. Moreover, recent surveys of the larger population have confirmed the enduring effect of the abuse on attenuating or severing sibling bonds. Brenda K. Bryant, "Sibling Caretaking: Providing Emotional Support during Middle Childhood," in Children's Sibling Relationships, p. 61; "Sibling Conflicts Leave Lasting Effects," Jet, 8 September 1997, p. 24+; Arthur Green, "Child Abuse by Siblings," Child Abuse and Neglect 8 (1984): 311. Quotes are from Bryant. Sessions: 14 April, 5 May, 24 November 1959, 7 April 1960 [Stein]; Sessions: 15 April 1954, February-May 1955, December 1955-September 1957; Conference, 1 May 1957 [Dumont]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro], Family Guidance Group [FGG]; Sessions: 16 January 1958, 22 October-3 December 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Group Therapy, 4 February 1959 [Lane]; Session, 8 October 1938 [Wexler], FCF; Diagnostic, 28 May 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Sessions: 25 July, 21 August, 12 September 1947 [McGuire]; Session, 9 October 1967 [Cernigliaro]; Conferences: 24 June 1955, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Session, 3 October 1934 [Feinman]; Sessions: 14 May 1948, 29 January, 14 November, 14 December 1952, 28 February 1953 [Simmons]; Session, 25 January 1951 [Rye].
61. Session, 25 January 1951 [Rye]; Session, 10 June 1943 [Bloom]; Sessions, 22 October-3 December 1958 [Levy]; Session, 14 April 1959 [Stein]; Session, 25 July 1947 [McGuire]; Conference, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]. See Merrill, The Accidental Bond, p. 126.
62. Letter from Woman, 19 February 1938 [Fowler]; Sessions: 1 October, 20 November 1954 [Blake]; Session, 8 October 1938 [Wexler]; Letter from Welfare Department, 13 September 1949 [MacDowell], CTC; Session, [16 March] 1950 [Rye]; Sessions: 21 October 1958, 10 December 1959, 7 April 1960 [Stein]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro]; Session, 9 April 1941 [Schwartz]; Conference, 11 April 1958 [Romano]; Session, 19 November 1941 [Xanthos], Family Mental Health Facility [FMHF]; Sessions: 14 May, 16 August 1948 [Simmons]; Sessions, [3, 10 February 1959] [Gross], Family Casework Clinic [FCC]. See Stephen H. Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana, 1990), pp. 9-11 and Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 152.
63. Even a strong attachment to a teacher might have offset the negative effects of sibling care. But, as some recalled, when they went on to become caregivers themselves they were forced to miss school so often they could no longer even follow the lessons. This is likely one way in which the women who came to the clinics differed from those with similar childhood experiences, who did not. As children or as adults, the latter had found a milieu in which their earlier views were disconfirmed. Sessions: 22 October-3 December 1958, 17 December 1959-28 January 1960; Transfer, 28 May 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Social History, [1948] [Grey]; Sessions: 17 March, 6 April, 7 July 1938, 8 February 1940 [Fowler]; Sessions: 4 February 1957, 3, 10 March 1958 [Anderson]; Sessions: 20 January, 4 February 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Session, 11 October 1967 [Soterakos]; Session, 5 November 1941 [Schwartz]; Jerome Kagan, Richard B. Kearsley, and Philip R. Zelazo, Infancy: Its Place in Human Development (Cambridge, MA, 1978), p. 37; Sessions: 15, 22 November 1944, 2 November 1951 [Caroli]. The first two quotes in the second paragraph are from Infancy.
64. The powerful effect of sibling care on self-esteem has been found far beyond the clinics' boundaries. A recent study of the general population found significantly lower scores on measures of self-esteem-on feelings of "global self-worth, social acceptance, and [about] physical appearance"-for children cared for by a sibling as compared to those in self-care, under the watch of a nonparental adult at home, or elsewhere. The relation remained even when "age, socioeconomic status, marital status, [and] length of time in care" were held constant. Brad Berman, Marilyn Winkleby, Elizabeth Chesterman, and W. Thomas Boyce, "After-School Care and Self-Esteem in School-Age Children," Pediatrics 84 (April 1992): 654-57.
65. Although the tendency to overly control was prevalent among those who had been cared for by an auxiliary parent or had served as one, there are other correlates of the overpowering need to control, and the impulse was not confined to them. Sessions: 10 February, 17, 23 March, 6 April, 7 October, December 1938, 31 July 1942; Letters from Woman: 16 March, 1 July 1938; Conference, 20 April 1938 [Fowler]; Conference, 29 January 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Sessions: 15 January, 19 March, 10 December 1941; Note, 29 January 1941; Conferences: 17 [April] 1941, 20 April 1942 [Schwartz]; Conference, 22 July 1955 [Parker], FCF; Home Visit, 1966 [Labowitz]; Sessions, 22 October-3 December 1958; Transfer, 28 May 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Session, 4 February 1957 [Anderson].
66. Although the records are opaque, it would be important to know if some mothers were more likely to turn over their daughters to a caregiver at an earlier age than their sons, although this probably varied by ethnic group, and declined over time.
67. To be sure, some mothers managed to ease the transfer of their child to a sibling's care, their behavior showing that the child was still cherished, that she was not being deserted or spurned. All else being equal, such children would be less likely to need the services of a clinic. Still, psychologists have found that the likelihood of a child developing into a "resilient youth," able to handle "stressful life events" adequately, is greatly diminished when two or less years separate her from her siblings, Children who do not have "to share their parents' attention with a younger sibling during the first twenty [or twenty-four] months of their lives" will be less likely to come within a clinic's purview. In these years, however, in the social classes considered here, when children were transferred to a sibling's care at the time of, or even shortly before, the next child's birth, few had the parent to themselves for the optimal time. Moreover, even when a child was turned over to a sibling later, the child could still fail to learn how to regulate anxiety adequately, since one of the ways in which child caregiving differs most from that of adults is in the limited range of strategies the child has to deploy in helping the charge or herself to cope with emotional stress. Werner, "Protective Factors," pp. 98-101, 107; Bryant, "Sibling Caretaking," p. 67. Quotes are from Werner. Sessions: 8 October, 22 October-3 December 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959; Treatment, September 1961[Levy]; Session, 25 October 1967 [Soterakos]; Conference, 29 January 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Evaluation, July-September 1967 [MacGregor]; John B. McDevitt, "Preoedipal Determinants of an Infantile Neurosis," in Separation-Individuation: Essays in Honor of Margaret S. Mahler, eds: John B. McDevitt and Calvin F. Settlage (New York, 1971), pp. 211, 216; Kagan, Kearsley, Zelazo, Infancy, pp. 106-7, 112; Sessions: December 1938, 31 July 1942 [Fowler]; Sessions, 7 November 1958-23 January 1959 [Klein]; Sessions: 19 March, 10 December 1941, 7 January 1942 [Schwartz]; Sessions: 4 February 1957, 10 March 1958 [Anderson]. The first two quotes are from "Preoedipal Determinants; " the third, from Infancy.
68. Sessions, October-3 December 1958; Transfer, 28 May 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959; Meeting with Teacher, 24 February 1958 [Levy]; Session, 3 October 1934 [Feinman]; Psychological, [1958]; Evaluation, March-June 1958 [Martelli]; Session, 2 November 1951 [Caroli]; Evaluation, July-September 1967; Notes, October-December 1967 [MacGregor]; Sessions: 6 January-10 February, 17 March, 2 June 1958; Conferences: December 1957-June 1958, 6 June 1958 [Lane]; Sessions: 9 April, 24 June 1941, 24 February 1942 [Schwartz]; Conference, 28 February 1958 [Riordan], FCF; Sessions, 7 November 1938-23 January 1939, 8 February 1939 [Perricelli], FCF; Conference, 27 October 1954 [Klein]; Session, 23 April 1948 [McGuire]; Session, 1 February 1938; Conference, 14 February 1938 [DiGiovanni]; Session, 17 January 1955; Conference, 1 May 1957 [Dumont]; Sessions: 14 April, 5 May 1959 [Stein]; Social Service, 24 June 1955; Conferences: 24 June 1955, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Session, 4 February 1957 [Anderson].
69. Adelson and Doehrman, "Psychodynamic Approach to Adolescence," pp. 103-8; Session, 1 February 1938; Follow-up, March 1942 [DiGiovanni]; Psychological, [1958] [Martelli]; Sessions: 9 February, 23 March 1954; Social Service, 24 June 1955; Conferences: 24 June 1955, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Conference, 27 October 1954 [Klein]; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Session, 14 April 1959 [Stein]. Quotes are from "Psychodynamic Approach."
70. On the day-care worker, see Kagan, Kearsley, Zelazo, Infancy, pp. 150-51, 180, 262-64.
71. Session, 15 March 1955 [Callahan], CTC; Conferences, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Sessions: 27 April, 16 July 1934 [Feinman]; Session, 20 November 1947; Diagnostic, 28 May 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Sessions: 17 March 1938, 22 June 1939; Letter from Woman, 1 July 1938 [Fowler]; Sessions: 13 January 1955, May, 10 October 1958 [Klein]; Session, 10 June 1943 [Bloom]; Session, 18 January 1939 [Perricelli]; Sessions: 21 August 1947, 23 April 1948 [McGuire]; Session, 27 May 1948 [Grey]; Session, 24 February 1942 [Schwartz]; Sessions, 22 October-3 December 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Sessions: 24 November, 3 December 1959, 21 January 1960 [Stein]; Summary, 15 November 1944 [Caroli]; Sessions: 8 March, 15 December 1948 [Segal], PCMHC; Intakes: 6, 20 January 1961 [Neumann]; 6 October 1950 [Janssen]; Sessions: 5 February, 14 November 1952 [Simmons]; Session, 8 November 1949; Letter from Welfare Department, 13 September 1949 [MacDowell]; Summary, 18 July 1967 [Cernigliaro]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro]; Session, 8 March 1939 [Gottlieb], FCF.
72. Sessions: 14 April, 12, 24 November, 3 December 1959, 21 January 1960; Conferences: 22 July 1959, [1959] [Stein]; Sessions: [February], 27 May, 23 August 1948; Social History, [1948] [Grey]; Sessions, December 1955-September 1957 [Dumont]; Sessions: 28 February, 2 March, 12, 21 June, 27 September, 3 October 1934, 18 March 1935 [Feinman]; Session, 8 March 1939 [Gottlieb]; Sessions: 29 September, 8 October 1938; Conference, 28 October 1938 [Wexler]; Sessions: 23 September 1954, May 1958 [Klein]; Session, 10 June 1943 [Bloom]; Session, 15 February 1956 [Eberhart], FMHF; Stadum, Poor Women, pp. 83-4; Sessions: 26 February, 9 April 1941, 24 February 1942 [Schwartz]; Conference, 6 June 1956 [MacGowan]; Session, 1 October 1954; Conferences, 22 October 1954 and 25 October 1955 [Blake]; Session, 22 December 1948 [Janssen]; Session, 23 April 1948 [McGuire].
73. Session, 26 September 1944; Summary, 15 November 1944 [Caroli]; Session, 16 [March] 1950 [Rye]; Summary, 24 October 1934-5 August 1935 [Bloom]; Session, 8 November 1949 [MacDowell]; Session, 10 March 1958 [Anderson]; Session, 2 March 1955 [Blake]; Session, 12 October 1947 [Reynolds]; Sessions: 27 January, 17 March 1938, 22 June 1939 [Fowler]; Data, 1951 [Xanakas], CTC; Sessions: [3, 10 February 1959], 5 May-10 July 1962 [Gross]; Data, 1939, 1961 [Sawyer], CTC; Sessions: 16 January, 22 October-3 December 1958 [Levy]; Session, 21 December 1938 [Perricelli]; Session, 4 February 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Session, 23 August 1948 [Grey]. See too: Sessions, December 1955-September 1957 [Dumont]; Diagnostic, [1966] [Moss], FTC.
74. Session, 16 February 1955 [Blake]; Sessions, 24 October 1934-5 August 1935 [Bloom]; Sessions: 12 January-2 March, 21 September-30 November 1955 [Parker]; Session, 23 April 1948 [McGuire]; Sessions: 23 November 1954, 22 March, 10 May 1955 [Callahan]; Summary, 15 November 1944 [Caroli]; Session, 5 June 1951 [Xanakas].
75. Session, 8 November 1949 [MacDowell]; Sessions: 18, 20 January 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Sessions: 21 October 1954, May 1958; Conference, 27 October 1954 [Klein]; Session, 28 June 1955 [Callahan]; Session, 17 March 1938 [Fowler]; Session, 30 January 1967 [Zelnick], FTC; Sessions: 16 [March] 1950, 1 February 1951 [Rye].
76. Sessions: 26 September, 22 November 1944; Summary, 15 November 1944 [Caroli].
77. Session, 21 December 1938; Conference, 16 December 1938 [Perricelli]; Evaluation, July-September 1967 [MacGregor]; Sessions: 24 September 1946, 15 March, 20 October, 15 December 1948 [Segal].
78. Bank and Kahn, The Sibling Bond, pp. 126-38; Gene H. Brody, Zolinda Stoneman and J. Kelly McCoy, "Contributions of Family Relationships and Child Temperaments to Longitudinal Variations in Sibling Relationship Quality and Sibling Relationship Styles," Journal of Family Psychology 8 (1994): 275. Quotes are from Bank and Kahn.
79. Bank and Kahn, The Sibling Bond, pp. 126-38; Gene H. Brody, Zolinda Stoneman and J. Kelly McCoy, "Contributions of Family Relationships and Child Temperaments to Longitudinal Variations in Sibling Relationship Quality and Sibling Relationship Styles," Journal of Family Psychology 8 (1994): 275. Quotes are from Bank and Kahn.
80. Women who never married are underrepresented in these records. This is in part because adults in these classes in these years were less likely to seek help for themselves than for their children or families. Their experiences were seen here largely from the perspectives of their siblings who had married and had children of their own. McDevitt, "Preoedipal Determinants," p. 215; Rex W. Speers et al., "Recapitulation of Separation-Individuation Processes When the Normal Three-Year-Old Enters Nursery School," in Separation-Individuation, p. 313; Sessions: 13-21 September, 1 November 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Sessions, February 1956; Treatment Conference, 25 February 1955 [Kornfeld], FCF; Sessions: 14 April, 23 June 1959 [Stein].
81. Women who never married are underrepresented in these records. This is in part because adults in these classes in these years were less likely to seek help for themselves than for their children or families. Their experiences were seen here largely from the perspectives of their siblings who had married and had children of their own. McDevitt, "Preoedipal Determinants," p. 215; Rex W. Speers et al., "Recapitulation of Separation-Individuation Processes When the Normal Three-Year-Old Enters Nursery School," in Separation-Individuation, p. 313; Sessions: 13-21 September, 1 November 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Sessions, February 1956; Treatment Conference, 25 February 1955 [Kornfeld], FCF; Sessions: 14 April, 23 June 1959 [Stein].
82. Chodorow, Reproduction of Mothering, pp. 136-37, 173-77; Bertram J. Cohler and Henry U. Grunebaum, Mothers, Grandmothers, and Daughters: Personality and Culture in Three. Generation Families (New York, 1981), p. 22; Conference, 22 October 1954 [Fischer]; Sessions: 17 January, December 1955-September 1957, 10 December 1957; Conference, 1 May 1957 [Dumont]; Sessions, 22 October-3 December 1958 [Levy]; Sessions: 16, 23 June 1959; Conference, 22 July 1959 [Stein]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro]; Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World, p. 172; Sessions: 8, 15 November 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Psychological, [1958] [Martelli]; Session, 11 April 1934 [Bloom].
83. Chodorow, Reproduction of Mothering, pp. 136-37, 173-77; Bertram J. Cohler and Henry U. Grunebaum, Mothers, Grandmothers, and Daughters: Personality and Culture in Three. Generation Families (New York, 1981), p. 22; Conference, 22 October 1954 [Fischer]; Sessions: 17 January, December 1955-September 1957, 10 December 1957; Conference, 1 May 1957 [Dumont]; Sessions, 22 October-3 December 1958 [Levy]; Sessions: 16, 23 June 1959; Conference, 22 July 1959 [Stein]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro]; Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World, p. 172; Sessions: 8, 15 November 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Psychological, [1958] [Martelli]; Session, 11 April 1934 [Bloom].
84. Chodorow, Reproduction of Mothering, pp. 136-37, 173-77; Bertram J. Cohler and Henry U. Grunebaum, Mothers, Grandmothers, and Daughters: Personality and Culture in Three. Generation Families (New York, 1981), p. 22; Conference, 22 October 1954 [Fischer]; Sessions: 17 January, December 1955-September 1957, 10 December 1957; Conference, 1 May 1957 [Dumont]; Sessions, 22 October-3 December 1958 [Levy]; Sessions: 16, 23 June 1959; Conference, 22 July 1959 [Stein]; Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro]; Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World, p. 172; Sessions: 8, 15 November 1948 [Rosenzweig]; Psychological, [1958] [Martelli]; Session, 11 April 1934 [Bloom].
85. Session, 24 November 1959 [Stein]; Sessions: 4, 28 February, 6 March 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Session, 14 May 1948 [McGuire]; Session, 15 February 1954 [Fischer].
86. Session, 4 February 1955 [Blake]; Sessions, 7 November 1958-23 January 1959 [Klein]; Home Visit, 13 October 1938; Session, 18 November 1938 [Perricelli]; Session, 20 April 1938 [Fowler]; Session, 15 February 1956; Sessions to 11 June 1956 [Eberhart]; Sessions: 23 March 1934, 9 July 1934 [Feinman]; Session, 2 May 1951 [Rye]; Data, [1951] [Xanakas]. See too: Sessions, 5-19 May 1960 [Silberschlag], PCMHC; Session, 7 December 1955 [Gallinari], FMHF; Session, 11 January 1961 [Weiss], CTC; Transfer, July 1959 [Riordan].
87. Sessions to 28 February 1955 [Fischer]; Sessions: 21 May, 21, 25 June 1962 [McKenzie], Family Counselors [FC]; Sessions: 30 December 1957, 4, 25 January, 11, 18 April, 22, 29 November 1960, 10, 17, 24, 31 January, 7, 14, 24, 31 [sic] February 1961 [Lane]. See too: Interview, 8 March 1961 [Sawyer].
88. One scholar of contemporary families agrees. He comments, "My informal observations suggest that adults who had extensive experience, as children, caring for other children find the business of bringing up children relatively uninteresting." Paul C. Rosenblatt, "Comment" in Weisner and Gallimore, "My Brother's Keeper," p. 184. Evaluation and Treatment, 3 September 1969-7 January 1970 [Cannistraro]; Sessions: 18 July, 18 October 1967 [Cernigliaro]; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Letter from Welfare Department, 13 September 1949 [MacDowell]; Sessions: 23 April 1941, 10 March 1942 [Schwartz]; Session, 12 November 1959 [Stein]; Session, 21 November 1944 [Caroli]; Session, 15 February 1956 [Eberhart]; Session, 15 September 1950 [Janssen].
89. Session, 15 September 1950 [Janssen]; Sessions, April-12 June 1958; Conference, 11 April 1958 [Romano]; Sessions: 21 August, 12 September 1947 [McGuire]; Sessions, 13 January-1 June 1944 [Xanthos]; Closing, [1950] [MacDowell]; Session, 28 January 1960 [Riordan]; Report, March 1955 [Fischer]; Transfer, 28 May 1958; Conference, 25 February 1959 [Levy]; Session, 22 January 1947 [Dimitriyevich]; Session, 4 October 1948 [Grey]; Session, 15 October 1951 [Caroli].
90. Viviana A. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985); Macleod, Age of the Child. Quotes are from Zelizer, pp. 13, 7, 131, 11.
91. Viviana A. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985); Macleod, Age of the Child. Quotes are from Zelizer, pp. 13, 7, 131, 11.
92. Sessions: 5, 27 February, 27 August 1934, 16 September 1935-23 July 1936, 10 June 1943; Report, 10 March 1934; Home Visit, 14 March 1934 [Bloom]; Sessions: 26 March, 27 April, 6, 8 June, 21 September, 3 October 1934, 29 January, 26 February, 18 March 1935 [Feinman]; Sessions, September 1968-March 1969 [Cernigliaro]; Letter from Woman, 15 June 1966 [O'Rourke], Therapy for Families and Children [TFC]; Sessions: 13-21 September 1948, 28 March-16 May 1949 [Rosenzweig]; Report, January 1938 [Khomiakov]; Intake, 31 January 1967 [Wald]; Conference, 28 February 1958 [Riordan]; Session, 2 November 1951 [Caroli]; Session, 10 January 1955 [Dumont].
93. Sessions: 2, 23 March, 24 April, 6, 12 June, 21 September 1934, 1 April 1935; Telephone Call from Woman, 8 June 1934 [Feinman]; Sessions: 5 February, 5 April, 27 August 1934, 10 June 1943 [Bloom]; Sessions, 28 March-16 May 1949 [Rosenzweig]; Session, 10 January 1956 [Sluberski], FMHF.
94. Fass, "Creating New Identities: Youth and Ethnicity in New York City High Schools in the 1930s and 1940s," in Joe Austin and Michael Nevin Willard, eds: Generations of Youth: Youth Cultures and History in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1998), pp. 96-7; Sessions: 8 March, 11 April, 27 August 1934; Home Visit, 14 March 1934; Report, 10 March 1934 [Bloom]; Sessions: 23 March, 27 April, 6 June, 16 July, 21, 27 September 1934, 18 March, 30 April 1935; Meeting with Teacher, 28 March 1934 [Feinman]; Conference, 22 July 1959 [Stein]; Session, 22 October 1954 [Blake]; Intake, 31 January 1967; Termination, 13 March 1968 [Wald]; Session, 1 September 1938 [Levinson], FCF; Session, 31 March 1958 [Lane]; Sessions, September 1968-March 1969 [Cernigliaro].
95. Arguably, the alienation of some women in the home during these years was in part a function of their inability to transfer some of the drudgery of childcare to another child. Table 101, Digest of Education Statistics, 2000 (Washington, D.C., 2001); www.census.gov/population/socdemo/school/ppl.148/tab02.txt.
96. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, n. 44, p. 302; Hymowitz, Ready or Not, pp. 12, 15. Quote is from Hymowitz.
97. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, n. 44, p. 302; Hymowitz, Ready or Not, pp. 12, 15. Quote is from Hymowitz.
98. Linda Creighton, "Kids Taking Care of Kids," U.S. News & World Report, 20 December 1993; Merrill, The Accidental Bond, p. 143; Deborah Belle, The After-School Lives of Children (Mahwah, N. J., 1999), pp. 69, 92. The first two quotes are from Creighton; the third is from Belle.
99. Linda Creighton, "Kids Taking Care of Kids," U.S. News & World Report, 20 December 1993; Merrill, The Accidental Bond, p. 143; Deborah Belle, The After-School Lives of Children (Mahwah, N. J., 1999), pp. 69, 92. The first two quotes are from Creighton; the third is from Belle.
100. Linda Creighton, "Kids Taking Care of Kids," U.S. News & World Report, 20 December 1993; Merrill, The Accidental Bond, p. 143; Deborah Belle, The After-School Lives of Children (Mahwah, N. J., 1999), pp. 69, 92. The first two quotes are from Creighton; the third is from Belle.