Charles Meller and John Kirk: Medical practitioners and practice on livingstone's Zambesi expedition, 1858–64

Journal of Medical Biography

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 129-134

  Larner, A J ^a  

^a WALTON CENTRE FOR NEUROLOGY AND NEUROSURGERY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

African fever; blackwater fever; C Meller; D Livingstone; epidemiology; J Kirk; malaria; quinine; smallpox; Zambesi

Indexed keywords

AFRICA; ART; ARTICLE; FEVER; HISTORY; HUMAN; PUBLIC RELATIONS; TRAVEL;

AFRICA; EXPEDITIONS; FEVER; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INTERPROFESSIONAL RELATIONS; PORTRAITS;

EID: 0036691587     PISSN: 09677720     EISSN: 17581087     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/096777200201000303     Document Type: Article

References (46)

1. For more details on Livingstone's various journeys, see any of the major biographies, such as: Gelfand M. Livingstone the Doctor: His Life and Travels. A Study in Medical History. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1957, Jeal T. Livingstone. London: Heinemann, 1973; Ransford O. David Livingstone: The Dark Interior. London: John Murray, 1978; or any major encyclopaedia, such as Children's Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th edn. 1988: vol. II, pp. 70–1. for the Zambesi expedition in particular, see Martelli G. Livingstone's River: A History of the Zambezi Expedition 1858–1864. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970
2. The spelling “Zambesi”, rather than “Zambezi”, is used throughout, this being the form in use at the time of the expedition, and likewise “Nyassa” rather than “Nyasa”
3. Livingstone's account of the Zambesi expedition is given in Livingstone D, Livingstone C. Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries: And the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa 1858–1864. London: John Murray, 1865 (hereinafter Narrative). Livingstone's journals also survive and have been published: Wallis JPR, Ed. The Zambesi Expedition of David Livingstone 1858–1863. London: Chatto & Windus, 1956; Shepperson G, Ed. David Livingstone and the Rovuma. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1965
4. See, for example, Livingstone D. On fever in the Zambesi. Lancet 1861; ii: 184–6; Cook GC. Doctor David Livingstone frs (1813–1873): “the fever” and other medical problems of mid-nineteenth century Africa. J Med Biog 1994; 2: 33–43; Larner AJ Fisher HJ. Dr Gustav Nachtigal (1834–1885): a contribution to the history of medicine in mid-nineteenth century Africa. J Med Biog 2000; 8: 43–8
5. For the history of malaria, see McGregor IA. Malaria. In: Cox FEG, Ed. The Wellcome Trust Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases. London: Wellcome Trust, 1996: 230–47
6. Livingstone D (Malaria ref. 4): 185. In the subsequently published Narrative (The Wellcome Trust Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases ref. 3: 73n), a slightly different recipe is given: 6–8 grains of resin of jalap, same of rhubarb, 3 grains each of calomel and quinine, made up into four pills with tincture of cardamoms
7. Cook GC ( ref. 4: 36) points out that this pill continued to be manufactured by Burroughs Wellcome until 1930
8. Narrative (((Malaria ref. 4) ref. 4: 36) points out that this pill continued to be manufactured by Burroughs Wellcome until ref. 3): 72; Livingstone D ((Malaria ref. 4) ref. 4): 185
9. In his journal, Livingstone sometimes refers to him as “Mellor” (Wallis JPR, Narrative ref. 3: 187, n2), as does Lovell J Procter, also of the mission: Bennett NR Ylvisaker M, Eds. The Central African Journal of Lovell J. Procter, 1860–1864. Boston: African Studies Center, Boston University, 1971. He is erroneously referred to as “JC Meller” in Tabler EC, ed. The Zambezi Papers of Richard Thornton, Geologist to Livingstone's Zambezi Expedition. London: Chatto & Windus, 1963: 295n
10. Meller is not listed in likely sources, such as the Dictionary of National Biography, or Morton LT Moore RJ. A Bibliography of Medical and Biomedical Biography, 2nd edn. Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1994. I have been unable to discover any picture of him, nor how or by whose recommendation Livingstone selected him
11. Meller CJ. Fever of the south-east coast of Africa. BMJ 1862; ii: 437–40. Cook GC (Meller is not listed in likely sources, such as the Dictionary of National Biography ref. 4: 43) mistakenly lists this paper as being published in the Lancet for 1862
12. The miasmatic theory was widely held before the demonstration by Ronald Ross of the mosquito transmission of malaria in 1897;see Cook GC Webb AJ. Perceptions of malaria transmission before Ross’ discovery in 1897. Postgrad Med J 2000; 76: 738–40. See also McGregor IA (Fever of the south-east coast of Africa ref. 5)
13. Meller CJ. On the fever of the East Central Africa. Encountered by Livingstone's Zambesi expedition. Lancet 1864; ii: 459–61, 520–2
14. Livingstone's journal (Wallis JPR, On the fever of the East Central Africa. Encountered by Livingstone's Zambesi expedition ref. 3: 368) contains a marginal note addressed to Thomas Maclear: “Allow me to commend Dr Mellor to you. He is a good amiable fellow. He goes down for a change of air. He has a spleen but is not splenetic.” Procter, one of the missionaries, reports a rather different prognosis: “Meller … will have to go home if he wishes to save his life” (Bennett NR, Ylvisaker M, Lancet ref. 9: 215). Meller eventually returned to the expedition, via a long visit to Madagascar (of possible significance for his future career)
15. Cook GC (Procter, one of the missionaries, reports a rather different prognosis: “Meller … will have to go home if he wishes to save his life” ref. 4): 35
16. Stephens JWW. Blackwater Fever: A Historical Survey and Summary of Observations Made Over a Century. London: University Press of Liverpool/Hodder & Stoughton, 1937
17. King MS King E. The Story of Medicine and Disease in Malawi. The 130 Years since Livingstone. Blantyre: Montfort Press, not dated (but no earlier than 1992): 12
18. Foskett R, Ed. The Zambesi Doctors: David Livingstone's Letters to John Kirk, 1858–1872. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964
19. Chadwick O. Mackenzie's Grave. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1959: 186
20. Narrative (Mackenzie's Grave ref. 3): 10. Meller also collected “a large variety of flowers” according to Procter (Bennett NR, Ylvisaker M, Mackenzie's Grave ref. 9: 120)
21. Foskett R, Ed. The Zambesi Journal and Letters of Dr John Kirk, 1858–63. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1965.To my knowledge, Kirk's only contemporaneous publications were: Kirk J. On a few fossil bones from the alluvial strata of the Zambesi delta. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 1864; 34: 199–201; Kirk J. Notes of two expeditions up the River Rovuma, East Africa. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 1865; 35: 154–67; and Kirk J. Notes on the gradient of the Zambesi, on the level of Lake Nyassa, on the Murchison Rapids, and on Lake Shirwa. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 1865; 35: 167–9. Only the second contains any medical details, and those fleeting (see ref. 26)
22. Coupland R. Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928
23. Chadwick O (Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History ref. 19)
24. Livingstone D ((Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History ref. 19) ref. 4): 185. In Livingstone's journal for March 1859 (Wallis JPR, (Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History ref. 19) ref. 3: 309–14), there is a “Report on the African fever to Sir James Clark. Remarks on the African fever in the Lower Zambesi by David Livingstone and Dr John Kirk”, also covering this material. What Clark (1788–1870), court physician to Queen Victoria, made of it is not known
25. On the treatment of fever, see Foskett R (((Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History ref. 19) ref. 4) ref. 21): 272, 285, 323, 402–3
26. On quinine prophylaxis and its failure, see Foskett R (((Kirk on the Zambesi: A Chapter of African History ref. 19) ref. 4) ref.): 23, 53, 145, 431, 484. Kirk J. Notes of two expeditions up the River Rovuma, East Africa. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 1865; 35: 159, states that quinine in small daily doses was quite inert, while quinine as a cure was indispensable
27. Foskett R (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society): 279. Vaccination was known on the north coast of Africa, brought by the Turks, and had penetrated into some parts of the interior. See Larner AJ, Fisher HJ (Notes of two expeditions up the River Rovuma, East Africa ref. 4): 45
28. On smallpox, see Foskett R (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ref. 21): 117, 327, 399–400. The failure of vaccines due to their becoming inert before they were administered was still a problem in the colonial period in Nyasaland, particularly during World War I. See Vaughan M. Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991: 44. Meller also saw cases of smallpox (Chadwick O, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ref. 19: 71) although he did not report them in his papers
29. Foskett R (On smallpox, see ref. 21): 326. Shepperson G (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ref. ref. 3: 26) states that Meller came out to take Kirk's place, since Kirk's three-year contract was up. Jeal T (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ref. ref. 2: 238) describes this episode as a “slap in the face” for Kirk
30. Foskett R ((On smallpox, see ref. 21) ref. 21): 156, 102. In Livingstone's defence, one may point out that it was more than 20 years since he had qualified; also, he may have lacked dexterity for bandaging following the injury to his left arm caused by his being mauled by a lion in 1843: it certainly impaired his ability to shoot
31. Wallis JPR (((On smallpox, see ref. 21) ref. 21) ref. 3): 180
32. Larner AJ. Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? St Mary's Hospital Gazette 1998; 104 (2): 47–9
33. For Wilson, see Foskett R (Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21): 502, 504; for Macleod, St Mary's Hospital Gazette
34. Foskett R ((Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21)): 502
35. (Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21): 374
36. For the carpenter (RF), compare Meller CJ ((Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21) ref. 13: 520), with Kirk's journal for 18 December 1861, in Foskett R ((Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21) ref. 21: 401–2, 404). For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ (ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in Foskett R (ref. 21: 510–11, 513)
37. Reported in Kirk's journal on 4 August 1862: Foskett R (For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21) ref. ref. ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21): 464ff
38. Another possible overlap relates to the categorization of the seasons in Africa. In the Narrative ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21) ref. ref. ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref. ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref. 3: 68), Livingstone reports that “Kirk divides the year into three seasons: cold, hot, and rainy”, the cold lasting from May to July, the hot from August to October, and the rest of the year being rainy. Meller CJ (ref. 11) adopts a very similar scheme
39. For primary sources from the expedition, see Narrative (Another possible overlap relates to the categorization of the seasons in Africa. ref. 3); Wallis JPR (In the Narrative ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ (In the Narrative ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((For Clark (RSC), compare Meller CJ ((Charles Meller and the medicine of the tropics in the mid-nineteenth century: pioneer or plagiarist? ref. 21) ref. ref. ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref. ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref.) ref. ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref. 13: 461), with Kirk's journal for 16 March 1863, in ref. 21) ref.) ref. 3); Shepperson G (ref. 3); Tabler EC (ref. 9); Foskett R (refs 18, 21); and Wallis JPR, Ed. The Zambesi Journals of James Stewart 1862–1863 with a Selection from his Correspondence. London: Chatto & Windus, 1952. From the mission, there is the account of Rowley H. Story of the Universities Mission to Central Africa, 1866; the journal of Waller, kept at Rhodes House in Oxford; and Bennett NR, Ylvisaker M (ref. 9). For secondary sources, see, for example, Gelfand M (ref. 2); Jeal T (ref. 2); Martelli G (ref. 2); Ransford O (ref. 2); Chadwick O (ref. 19); and Coupland R (ref. 22). I am not aware that Meller kept a journal, although he did apparently leave many sketches: King MS, King E (ref. 17): 12, 97; Bennett NR Ylvisaker M (ref. 9): 147
40. Coupland R (For primary sources from the expedition, see ref. 22): 211–12; Chadwick O (Narrative (Another possible overlap relates to the categorization of the seasons in Africa. ref.) ref. 19): 85; Bennett NR Ylvisaker M (Narrative (Another possible overlap relates to the categorization of the seasons in Africa. ref.) ref. 9)
41. Narrative ((For primary sources from the expedition, see ref. 22) ref. 3): 455. Tabler EC ((For primary sources from the expedition, see ref. 22) ref. 9: 303) cites a letter from Livingstone to George Thornton stating that Meller attended his brother, Richard Thornton, assiduously for the whole of the night before his death. Meller CJ ((For primary sources from the expedition, see ref. 22) ref. 13: 520) describes Thornton's illness at length
42. Coupland R (Narrative ref. 22): 230; Foskett R (Narrative ref. 21): 433, 493. Jeal T (Narrative ref. 2: 238) says that, despite the difficulties of their first meeting, Kirk liked Meller; the sources for this statement are unclear
43. Ransford O ((Narrative ref. 22) ref. 2): 212–13, 235, 228, 230; the last three quotes are from the National Archives of Rhodesia, TH1/1/1,28. It is not clear whether this information prompted the recall of the expedition in 1864, but it certainly provoked caution in British government circles when Livingstone sought backing for his subsequent (and final) expedition
44. Narrative (((Narrative ref. 22) ref. 2) ref. 3): 463; Gelfand M (((Narrative ref. 22) ref. 2) ref. 2): 217; Tabler EC (((Narrative ref. 22) ref. 2) ref. 9): 295n
45. King MS King E (Narrative ref. 17): 14
46. Foskett R ((Narrative ref. 17) ref. 21): 265. Coupland apparently planned to write an account of Kirk's later, diplomatic, career (“the most important part of Sir John Kirk's career”) to complement his account of the Zambesi expedition but this never came to fruition (Coupland R, (Narrative ref. 17) ref. 22: v)