Alexander the Great, seafaring, and the spread of leprosy

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 57, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 285-311

  Mark, Samuel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN DENMARK   (Denmark)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BACTERIAL INFECTION; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; GREECE; HISTORY; HUMAN; INDIA; LEPROSY; MYCOBACTERIUM LEPRAE; PUBLIC FIGURE; TRAVEL;

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; FAMOUS PERSONS; GREECE; HISTORY, ANCIENT; HUMANS; INDIA; LEPROSY; MYCOBACTERIUM LEPRAE; TRAVEL;

EID: 0036651475     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/57.3.285     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
2. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
3. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
4. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
5. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
6. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
7. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
8. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. McDougall, Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
9. R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1976), p. 192; D. J. Ortner and W. G. J. Putschar, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), p. 178; C. Roberts and K. Manchester, The Archaeology of Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 146; W. H. Jopling and A. C. Handbook of Leprosy (London: Heinemann Medical Books, 1988), p. 5; J. M. Grange, Mycobacteria and Human Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 138; G. Kaplan and V. H. Freedman, "Leprosy: Immune Mechanisms in Disease," in M. W. Cunningham, G. L. Cross, and R. S. Fujinami, eds., Effects of Microbes on the Immune System (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000), pp. 151-57, p. 151; E. V Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical 'Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible," Palest. Explor. Q., 1975, 107, 87-105, p. 88; S. G. Browne, "The History of Leprosy," in R. C. Hastings, ed., Leprosy (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985), pp. 1-14, p. 2; R. Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 182.
10. J. G. Andersen, "Studies in the Medical Diagnosis of Leprosy in Denmark," Dan. Med. Bull., 1969, 16, Suppl. 9, 10-45, I23.
11. T. Dzierzykray-Rogalski, "Paleopathology of the Ptolemaic Inhabitants of Dakleh Oasis (Egypt)," J. Hum. Evol., 1980, 9, 71-74.
12. M. Grmek, Diseases in the Ancient Greek World (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), pp. 152-76.
13. L. K. Bhutani, I. Nath, N. K. Mehra, and N. H. Antia, "Leprosy," The Lancet, 1995, 345, 697-703, pp. 698-99; W. M. Meyers, "Leprosy," in R. L. Guerrant, D. H. Walker, and P. F. Weller, eds., Tropical Infectious Diseases: Principles, Pathogens, & Practice (Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 1999), pp. 474-85, p. 477.
14. L. K. Bhutani, I. Nath, N. K. Mehra, and N. H. Antia, "Leprosy," The Lancet, 1995, 345, 697-703, pp. 698-99; W. M. Meyers, "Leprosy," in R. L. Guerrant, D. H. Walker, and P. F. Weller, eds., Tropical Infectious Diseases: Principles, Pathogens, & Practice (Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 1999), pp. 474-85, p. 477.
15. D. Lockwood and K. McAdam, "Leprosy," in S. L. Gorbach, J. G. Bartlett, N. R. Blacklow, eds., Infectious Diseases, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1998), pp. 1528-41, p. 1534; Meyers, "Leprosy," p. 477.
16. D. Lockwood and K. McAdam, "Leprosy," in S. L. Gorbach, J. G. Bartlett, N. R. Blacklow, eds., Infectious Diseases, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1998), pp. 1528-41, p. 1534; Meyers, "Leprosy," p. 477.
17. Lockwood and McAdam, "Leprosy," pp. 1534-35; Meyers, "Leprosy," pp. 477-78.
18. Lockwood and McAdam, "Leprosy," pp. 1534-35; Meyers, "Leprosy," pp. 477-78.
19. Lockwood and McAdam, "Leprosy," p. 1535; Meyers, "Leprosy," p. 478; Roberts and Manchester, Archaeology, pp. 143-44.
20. Lockwood and McAdam, "Leprosy," p. 1535; Meyers, "Leprosy," p. 478; Roberts and Manchester, Archaeology, pp. 143-44.
21. Lockwood and McAdam, "Leprosy," p. 1535; Meyers, "Leprosy," p. 478; Roberts and Manchester, Archaeology, pp. 143-44.
22. A. Carmichael, "Leprosy," in K. Kiple, ed., The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 834-39, p. 837; M. Allison, "Leishmaniasis," in K. Kiple, ed., The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 832-34.
23. A. Carmichael, "Leprosy," in K. Kiple, ed., The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 834-39, p. 837; M. Allison, "Leishmaniasis," in K. Kiple, ed., The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 832-34.
24. T. Savitt, "Filariasis," in K. Kiple, ed., The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 724-29.
25. Ibid., p. 724.
26. A. Aufderheide and C. Rodríguez-Martin, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 150.
27. Ibid., pp. 151-54.
28. Ibid., p. 154.
29. I. Shaw and P. Nicholson, The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (London: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1995), pp. 139-40; J.H. Breasted, A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1924), pp. 112-13.
30. I. Shaw and P. Nicholson, The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (London: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1995), pp. 139-40; J.H. Breasted, A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1924), pp. 112-13.
31. P. Ghalioungui, The Physicians of Pharaonic Egypt (Mainz Am Rhein: Verlag Philipp Von Zabern, 1983), pp. 16, 18, 77, 92.
32. Herodotus, Herodoti Hisloriae, Scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca Oxoniensis, C. Hude, com., 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927), I, book 3, sect. 128-29 [3.128-29].
33. See, for example, R. David and E. Tapp, Evidence Embalmed: Modern Medicine and the Mummies of Ancient Egypt (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), pp. 78-126; M. Bucaille, Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990); Roberts and Manchester, Archaeology, pp. 38, 99, 133-34, 160, 193.
34. See, for example, R. David and E. Tapp, Evidence Embalmed: Modern Medicine and the Mummies of Ancient Egypt (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), pp. 78-126; M. Bucaille, Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990); Roberts and Manchester, Archaeology, pp. 38, 99, 133-34, 160, 193.
35. See, for example, R. David and E. Tapp, Evidence Embalmed: Modern Medicine and the Mummies of Ancient Egypt (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), pp. 78-126; M. Bucaille, Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990); Roberts and Manchester, Archaeology, pp. 38, 99, 133-34, 160, 193.
36. Grmek, Diseases, p. 159.
37. B. Ebbell, The Papyrus Ebers: The Greatest Egyptian Medical Document (Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard, 1937), p. 126.
38. Andersen, "Studies," pp. 10-44, 11. On gas gangrene, see D. Olendorf, C. Jeryan, K. Boyden, eds., The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine, 5 vols. (Detroit: Gale Research, 1999), III, 1243-44.
39. Andersen, "Studies," pp. 10-44, 11. On gas gangrene, see D. Olendorf, C. Jeryan, K. Boyden, eds., The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine, 5 vols. (Detroit: Gale Research, 1999), III, 1243-44.
40. Grmek, Diseases, p. 159.
41. Ibid., p. 159.
42. Ibid., pp. 159-60.
43. A. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), P. 224.
44. Browne, History, p. 8.
45. Grmek, Diseases, pp. 160-61.
46. J. Moffatt, trans., The Old Testament, 2 vols. (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1924) I, 119-21 [Leviticus XIII 13.2-13.39].
47. Ibid., pp. 62 [Exodus 4.6], 161 [Numbers 12.10], 416 [II Kings 5.27]; Hulse, "Nature," P. 92.
48. Ibid., pp. 62 [Exodus 4.6], 161 [Numbers 12.10], 416 [II Kings 5.27]; Hulse, "Nature," P. 92.
49. Hulse, "Nature," pp. 91, 96-97.
50. Grmek, Diseases, p. 161.
51. Moffatt, Old Testament, I, 121 [Leviticus 13.29-37].
52. Hulse, "Nature," pp. 96, 99.
53. Moffatt, Old Testament, I, 119-120 [Leviticus XIII, 5-8].
54. Ibid., pp. 121-22 [Leviticus 13.47-59].
55. Grmek, Diseases, p. 161.
56. Moffatt, Old Testament, I, 219.
57. Ibid., p. 220.
58. M. C. Howatson, The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 279.
59. See, for example, J. Chadwick and W. N. Mann, The Medical Works of Hippocrates (New York: Penguin Books, 1986), p. 215 [Aphorisms 3.20]; W. D. Smith, trans., Hippocrates, 8 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), VII, 80 [Epidemics 2.6.24].
60. See, for example, J. Chadwick and W. N. Mann, The Medical Works of Hippocrates (New York: Penguin Books, 1986), p. 215 [Aphorisms 3.20]; W. D. Smith, trans., Hippocrates, 8 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), VII, 80 [Epidemics 2.6.24].
61. Grmek, Diseases, p. 165.
62. Ibid., p. 167.
63. P. Potter, trans., Hippocrates, 8 vols, in Greek and English (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), VIII, 293 [Prorrhetic II.43] [passage trans. by author].
64. J. Doull, "Salient Features in the Epidemiology of Leprosy," in F. Moulton, ed., Tuberculosis and Leprosy: the Mycobacterial Diseases (Lancaster, Penn.: The Science Press Printing Company, 1938), 106-9, P. 106.
65. Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martin, Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 127.
66. Oribasius, Collectio medica, C. Bussemaker and C. Daremberg, eds. and trans., 4 vols. (Paris: A l'Imprimerie nationale, 1862), IV, 63 [trans. by author].
67. Plutarch, Plutarch's Moralia, Loeb Classical Library, E. H. Warmington, ed., E. L. Minar, Jr., F. H. Sandbach, and W. C. Helmbold, trans., 16 vols.(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969), IX, 187 [8.9.731.1B].
68. Grmek, Diseases, p. 167, 168.
69. J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas (London: Thames and Hudson, 1980), p. 43.
70. See Homer, Homeri Opera, Odysseae, Scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca Oxoniensis, T. W. Allen, com., 5 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), IV, book 14, line 296 and book 13, lines 273-286 [Od. 14.296; Od. 13.273-286]; Odysseae, IV, book 15, lines 455 and lines 457-65 [Od. 15.455; Od. 15.457-65].
71. Thucydides, Hitoriac, Scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca Oxoniensis, H. S. Jones and J. E. Powell, eds., 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), I, book 2, sect. 48 [2.48] [trans. by author].
72. K. Hude, ed., Corpus Medicorum Graecorum II, 2nd ed. (Berlin: 1958), pp. 85-90 [4.13].
73. Grmek, Diseases, p. 157.
74. A. Rowe, The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth-Shan, Part I, The Temples and Cult Objects, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1940), pp. 12, 57, pl. 46A: 3, 4; R. G. Cochrane and T. F. Davey, Leprosy in Theory and Practice (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, 1964) p. 1; Browne, "History," p. 9; Hulse, "Nature," p. 90.
75. A. Rowe, The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth-Shan, Part I, The Temples and Cult Objects, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1940), pp. 12, 57, pl. 46A: 3, 4; R. G. Cochrane and T. F. Davey, Leprosy in Theory and Practice (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, 1964) p. 1; Browne, "History," p. 9; Hulse, "Nature," p. 90.
76. A. Rowe, The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth-Shan, Part I, The Temples and Cult Objects, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1940), pp. 12, 57, pl. 46A: 3, 4; R. G. Cochrane and T. F. Davey, Leprosy in Theory and Practice (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, 1964) p. 1; Browne, "History," p. 9; Hulse, "Nature," p. 90.
77. A. Rowe, The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth-Shan, Part I, The Temples and Cult Objects, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1940), pp. 12, 57, pl. 46A: 3, 4; R. G. Cochrane and T. F. Davey, Leprosy in Theory and Practice (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, 1964) p. 1; Browne, "History," p. 9; Hulse, "Nature," p. 90.
78. Hulse, "Nature," p. 90.
79. Roberts and Manchester, Archaeology, pp. 139-40.
80. Andersen, "Studies"; Dharmendra, "Leprosy in Ancient Indian Medicine," Int. J. Lepr., 1947, 15, 424-30, p. 424.
81. Andersen, "Studies"; Dharmendra, "Leprosy in Ancient Indian Medicine," Int. J. Lepr., 1947, 15, 424-30, p. 424.
82. K. K. Bhishagratna, trans. and ed., The Sushruta Samhita, 3 vols. (Varanasi, India: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1963), II, 36-37.
83. Ibid., p. 40.
84. R. N. Saletore, Encyclopedia of Indian Culture, 2 vols. (Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, Inc., 1981), I, 112-13.
85. R. P. Kangle, trans., The Kautiliya Artjasastra (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986), p. 200 [3.2.45].
86. Ibid., pp. 211 [3.5.30], 228-29 [3-11.28-30], 246 [3.18.4], 500 [14.2.13], 500 [14.2.14].
87. Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martin, Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 126.
88. Herodotus, Herodoti Historiae, I, book 4, sect. 44; II, book 7, sect. 65, 86; Arrian, Anabasis, Loeb Classical Library, G. P. Goold, ed., P. A. Brunt, trans., 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1976), I, 247 [3.8.3-4].
89. Herodotus, Herodoti Historiae, I, book 4, sect. 44; II, book 7, sect. 65, 86; Arrian, Anabasis, Loeb Classical Library, G. P. Goold, ed., P. A. Brunt, trans., 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1976), I, 247 [3.8.3-4].
90. Bhutani et al., "Leprosy," pp. 698-99.
91. Jopling and McDougall, Handbook, p. 1; Grange, Mycobacteria, p. 109.
92. Jopling and McDougall, Handbook, p. 1; Grange, Mycobacteria, p. 109.
93. Arrian Anabasis, II, 176, 178-82 [6.25.4-6,6.26.1-5].
94. Jopling and McDougall, Handbook, p. 115; Grange, Mycobacteria, p. 96.
95. Jopling and McDougall, Handbook, p. 115; Grange, Mycobacteria, p. 96.
96. Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martin, Cambridge Encyclopedia, pp. 13-14.
97. Oribasius, Collectio medica, IV, 63 [trans. by author].
98. Ibid., IV, 63-64 [trans. by author].
99. Plutarch, Plutarch's Moralin, IX, 186.
100. Celsus, De medicina, Loeb Classical Library, T.E. Page, E. Capps, L. A. Post, W. H. D. Rouse, and E. H. Warmington, eds., W. G. Spencer, tran., 3 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935), I, 342-43 [3-25-1-3].
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