Disease and its impact on politics, diplomacy, and the military: The case of smallpox and the manchus (1613-1795)

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 57, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 177-197

  Chang, Chia Feng ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CHINA; HISTORY; HUMAN; POLITICS; SMALLPOX; SOLDIER; WAR;

CHINA; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MILITARY PERSONNEL; POLITICS; SMALLPOX; WAR;

EID: 0036550909     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/57.2.177     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Zhang Jiebin (1563-1640), Jingyue quanshu (Zhang Jingyue's Collected Treatise) (Taipei: Xinwenfeng Chuban Gongsi [rprt.], 1976), juan 43, p. 744.
2. Xie Zhaozhe was an official in the Wanli period (1573-1620). At that time, Tartar (Dada) was widely used as the name for the peoples who lived in the north and northwest of China. See Xie Zhaozhe, Wuzazu (Five Sundry Bands) (1618) (Shanghai: Zhongyang Shudian, 1935), juan 5, p. 193.
3. Variolation was a sophisticated technique developed in China during the sixteenth century. Practitioners used this technique in five ways, all of which were designed to expose a child to the smallpox virus and to produce a mild case of smallpox. One favored method was to take the scabs from a child with a mild case of smallpox, to grind the scabs into powder, to mix the powder with water or wine, to use cotton balls to dip in the wet scabs, and to place cotton balls into the nasal passages. Initially, this technique was practiced by a marginal group of healers outside the orthodox medical system. See Chia-Feng Chang, Aspects of Smallpox and Its Significance in Chinese History (Ph.D. diss., SDAS, University of London, 1996), pp. 124-59.
4. The Kangxi Emperor started to introduce variolation in the Qing Imperial Family in the end of the seventh year of the Kangxi reign (1679). He later expanded this technique to the Mongols. See Chia-Feng Chang, "Qing Kangxi Huangdi caiyong rendoufa de shijian yu yuanyin shitan" (Time frame and reasons of Kangxi Emperor adopted variolation), Zhonghua yishi zazhi (The Chinese Journal of History of Medicine), 1996, 26, 30-32;
5. Zhu Chungu, Douzen dinglun (Final Conclusion on Smallpox) (1713) (Gusu: Qixi Tang, 1767), pp. 1-3.
6. Guang Lu and Li Xuezhi, trans., Qing Taizu chao lao manwen yuandang (The Old Original Manchu Archive for the Qing Taizu Reign), 2 vols. (Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, 1970), I, 31-32.
7. Wenren Gui, Wenren shi douzheng lun (Wenren Gui's Treatise on Smallpox) (Liu Shangyi reprinted edition, 1544), Lu Shen's preface. This text was composed approximately C.E. 1228-1236.
8. Zhang Tingyu et al., Ming shi (History of the Ming Dynasty) (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1974), juan 239, pp. 6216-17.
9. Xie Zhaozhe, (n. 2) Wuzazu, juan 5, p. 193.
10. William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1976), pp. 1-5.
11. Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (The Memoir of the Emperor Abahai of the Great Qing Dynasty) (Tokyo: Dazang Chuban Zhushi Huishe, n.d.), juan 9, pp. 8-9.
12. The First Historical Archives of China, ed., Manwen Laodang (The Old Manchu Archives) (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1990), pp. 1353-56.
13. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (The Memoir of the Shizu Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty) (Tokyo: Dazang Chuban Zhushi Huishe, n.d.), juan 2, p. 6. Aisin Guovuo XX (1592-1643), posthumously honored as Emperor Abahai by his son, the Shunzhi Emperor (1638-1661). Abahai, known in official accounts as Huangtaiji, was Nurhaci's eighth son.
14. Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 23, p. 24.
15. The First Historical Archives of China, ed., Qing chu neiguoshiyuan manwen dang'an yibian (Translation on the Manchu Archives of the Inner National History Bureau in the Early Qing Dynasty), 3 vols. (Beijing: Guangming Ribao Chubanshe, 1989), I, 108.
16. The First Historical Archives, (n. 10) Manwen Laodang, pp. 282-83.
17. The First Historical Archives, (n. 13) Qing chu neiguoshiyuan manwen dang'an yibian, II, 19.
18. See Chia-Feng Chang, "Strategies of dealing with smallpox in the early Qing Imperial Family," in Hashimoto Keizo, Catherine Jami, and Lowell Skar, eds., East Asian Science: Tradition and Beyond (Osaka: Kansai University Press, 1995), pp. 199-205.
19. When there was no smallpox alarm, the imperial family used to entertain guests in the bidousuo. See Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 53, p. 3.
20. The First Historical Archives, (n. 10) Manwen Laodang, p. 1231;
21. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 61, p. 13;
22. The First Historical Archives, (n. 13) Qing chu neiguoshi yuan manwen dang'an yibian, III, 246.
23. Ji Yonghai and Liu Jingxian, trans., Chongde san'nian manwen dang'an yibian (The Chinese Translation of the Manchu Archive of the Third Year of the Chongde Reign [1638]) (Shenyang: Liaoshen Shushe, 1988), p. 93.
24. Chia-Feng Chang, "Qing chu de bidou yu chadou zhidu (The smallpox quarantine arid investigation system in the early Qing dynasty)," Hanxue Yanjiu (Chinese Studies), 1996, 14.1, 135-156.
25. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 72, p. 6;
26. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu, juan 90, p. 22.
27. For detailed discussion about these two bidousuo, see Chia-Feng Chang, Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 20), pp. 141-42.
28. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 90, p. 22.
29. Alftons Väth, Tang Ruowang zhuan (Biography of Johann Adam Schall von Bell) (1933), trans. Yang Bingchen, (Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1949), pp. 325-26;
30. Fan Xingzhun, Zhongguo yufang yixue sixiang shi (A History of Preventive Medicine in China) (Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe, 1953), p. 128. Yet the fact that the Tongzhi Emperor (1856-1875) died of smallpox shows that this regulation was not strictly obeyed in his case, probably because he was the only surviving son of the former ruler, the Xianfeng Emperor (1831-1861).
31. Yu Zhengxie (1775-1840), Guisi cungao (Preserve Manuscipts of the 1833) (Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1937; 1957), juan 9, p. 250.
32. The First Historical Archives, Kangxi qiju zhu (Annotated Version of the Kangxi Emperor's Daily Record), 3 vols. (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1984), I, 195, 389-90.
33. Qinding da Qing huidian shili (The Great Qing Official Compilation Cases of the National Code) (Taipei: Qiwen Chubanshe, 1963), juan 478, pp. 13, 19.
34. For example, the Great Beile Daishan's sons, Prince Yuetuo and Prince Mazhan, died of smallpox on their way to conquer the Ming China; Prince Dodo (1614-1649) died of smallpox at the age of thirty-six in 1649; Prince Ajige's (1605-1651) two wives died of this disease at the same year, and so did Jianzhu. See Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 45, pp. 21-22;
35. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu, juan 46, pp. 2-4;
36. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu, juan 47, p. 2;
37. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu, juan 47, p. 14;
38. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 43, p. 4; p. 7;
39. The First Historical Archives, (n. 13) Qing chu neiguoshiyuan manwen dang'an yibian, III, 18.
40. Kangxi Emperor, Kangxi yuzhi wenji (His Majesty Kangxi Emperor's Treatise) (Taipei: Taiwan Xuesheng Shuju [rprt.], 1966), juan 8, pp. 3-4.
41. Da Qing Muzong Yi Huangdi shilu (The Memoir of the Tongzhi Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty; Tokyo: Dazang Chuban Zhushi Huishi, n.d.), juan 373, pp. 13-14;
42. Chen Keji, ed., Qinggong yi'an yanjiu (Research on the Medical Cases of the Qing Imperial Palace) (Beijing: Zhongyi Guji Chubanshe, 1990), pp. 494-97, 783-85, 799.
43. Xie Jingfang, "Tianhua yu Qing chu shishi pingyi" (On smallpox and historical events during the early period of Qing dynasty), Minzu Yanju (Ethno-national Studies) 1995, 69-74.
44. Qinding da Qing huidian shili (n. 26), juan 477, p. 3.
45. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 4, pp. 1-3.
46. Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 36, pp. 27, 32-34.
47. For details of smallpox investigation system, see Chia-Feng Chang, (n. 20), pp. 145-151.
48. Xie Zhaozhe, (n. 2) Wuzazu, juan 5, p. 193;
49. Wenren Gui, (n. 5) Wenren shi douzheng lun, Lu Shen's preface; Huang Biao's preface;
50. Zhang Tingyu et al., (n. 6) Ming shi, juan 239, pp. 6216-17.
51. Ji Yorighai and Liu Jingxian trans., (n. 19) Chongde san'nian manwen dang'an yibian, p. 88;
52. Wu Zhenyu (?-1866), Yangjizhai yulu (Wu Zhenyu's Complementary Treatise) (Beijing: Beijing Guji Chubanshe, 1983), juan 5, p. 322.
53. Zhuarig Jifa trans., Nishan Saman zhuan (Biography of the Nishan Saman) (Taipei: Wenshizhe Chubanshe, 1977), pp. 139-147.
54. Guang Lu and Li Xuezhi, trans., (n. 4) Qing Taizu chao lao manwen yuandang, pp. 31-32.
55. Wei Yuan (1794-1856), Shengwuji (The Sacred Military Records) (Taipei: Wenhai Chubanshe, 1973), juan 4, p. 7.
56. The First Historical Archives, (n. 10) Manwen laodang, pp. 382-83.
57. Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 36, p. 24.
58. The First Historical Archives, (n. 10) Manwen laodang, pp. 1601-2.
59. Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 14, pp. 18-29.
60. Ibid., juan 46 pp. 2-3.
61. The First Historical Archives, (n. 10) Manwen laodang, pp. 810, 839.
62. Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 36, pp. 20-34.
63. Ibid., juan 14, pp. 18-29.
64. F. Wakeman, The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of the Imperial Order in Seventeenth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
65. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 14, pp. 13-14.
66. Tan Qian (1594-1657), Beiyoulu (Notes of Traveling to the North) (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1981), p. 355.
67. Ibid., p. 413.
68. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 61, p.13.
69. Da Qing Taizong Wen Huangdi shilu (n. 9), juan 46, pp. 20-27.
70. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 4, pp. 1-3.
71. Ibid., juan 37, pp. 3-4.
72. Ibid., juan 90, p. 17.
73. Ibid., juan 90, p. 17;
74. Tan Qian, (n. 50) Beiyoulu, p. 366.
75. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 90, p. 17.
76. Da Qing Renzong Rui Huangdi shilu (The Memoir of the Jiaqing Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty) (Tokyo: Dazang Chuban Zhushi Huishe, n.d.), juan 37, p. 48.
77. The First Historical Archives, (n. 25) Kangxi qijuzhu, I, 13.
78. Qinding da Qing huidian shili (n. 26), juan 984, pp. 10-11; p. 16;
79. juan 985, p. 8;
80. Menggu luli (Mongol Regulations and Cases) (Taipei: Guangwen Shuju, 1972), juan 1, p. 13.
81. Qinding da Qing huidian shili (n. 26), juan 977, p. 3.
82. Da Qing Renzong Rui Huangdi shilu (n. 59), juan 44, p. 11.
83. Da Qing Shizu Zhang Huangdi shilu (n. 11), juan 50, pp. 9-23.
84. Da Qing Shengzu Ren Huangdi shilu (The Memoir of the Kangxi Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty) (Tokyo: Dazang Chuban Zhushi Huishe, n.d.), juan 171, p. 17;
85. Da Qing Shengzu Ren Huangdi Shilu (The Memoir of the Kangxi Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty), juan 188, p. 16;
86. Da Qing Shengzu Ren Huangdi Shilu (The Memoir of the Kangxi Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty), juan 192, pp. 7-9.
87. Ibid., juan 265, p. 13.
88. Da Qing Gaozong Chun Huangdi shilu (The Memoir of the Qianlong Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty) (Tokyo: Dazang Chuban Zhushi Huishe, n.d.), juan 121, p. 18.
89. Ibid, juan 122, p. 11.
90. The National Historical Institute, ed., Qingshigao jiaozhu (The Annotation on the Manuscript of the History of the Qing Dynasty) (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 1986), juan 14, p. 500, n. 86.
91. Chia-Feng Chang, (n. 3), pp. 30-32.
92. Wu Zhenyu (?-1866), Yangjizai Conglu (Wu Zhenyu's Collected Treatise) (Beijing: Beijing Guji Chubanshe, 1983), juan 25, p. 267.