Darwinism and death: Devaluing human life in Germany 1859-1920

Journal of the History of Ideas

Volumn 63, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 323-344

  Weikart, Richard ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL FACTOR;

ARTICLE; CRIME; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; DEATH; GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; GERMANY; HISTORY; HUMAN; LIFE; MEDICAL GENETICS; POLITICAL SYSTEM; WAR AND HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES;

GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; WAR AND HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES;

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS; CULTURAL EVOLUTION; DEATH; EUGENICS; GERMANY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; LIFE; NATIONAL SOCIALISM; POLITICAL SYSTEMS; WAR CRIMES;

EID: 0036527481     PISSN: 00225037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3654200     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Richard J. Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism: The History and Historiography of a Concept," in Medicine and Modernity: Public Health and Medical Care in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Germany, ed. Manfred Berg and Geoffrey Cocks (Washington, 1997), 55-79. In this paper "Darwinism" refers exclusively to the theory of evolution by natural selection, although non-Darwinian theories of evolution, such as Lamarckism, were sometimes compatible with Darwinism.
2. See Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's Weltanschaung: A Blueprint for Power, tr. Herbert Arnold (Middleton, Conn., 1972), ch. 5; Brigitte Hamann, Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship, tr. Thomas Thornton (New York, 1999), 82-84, 102, 202ff; Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany, 1933-1945 (Cambridge, 1991); and (though one-sided and should be used with caution) Daniel Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism: Social Darwinism in Ernst Haeckel and the German Monist League (London, 1971).
3. See Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's Weltanschaung: A Blueprint for Power, tr. Herbert Arnold (Middleton, Conn., 1972), ch. 5; Brigitte Hamann, Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship, tr. Thomas Thornton (New York, 1999), 82-84, 102, 202ff; Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany, 1933-1945 (Cambridge, 1991); and (though one-sided and should be used with caution) Daniel Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism: Social Darwinism in Ernst Haeckel and the German Monist League (London, 1971).
4. See Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's Weltanschaung: A Blueprint for Power, tr. Herbert Arnold (Middleton, Conn., 1972), ch. 5; Brigitte Hamann, Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship, tr. Thomas Thornton (New York, 1999), 82-84, 102, 202ff; Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany, 1933-1945 (Cambridge, 1991); and (though one-sided and should be used with caution) Daniel Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism: Social Darwinism in Ernst Haeckel and the German Monist League (London, 1971).
5. See Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's Weltanschaung: A Blueprint for Power, tr. Herbert Arnold (Middleton, Conn., 1972), ch. 5; Brigitte Hamann, Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship, tr. Thomas Thornton (New York, 1999), 82-84, 102, 202ff; Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany, 1933-1945 (Cambridge, 1991); and (though one-sided and should be used with caution) Daniel Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism: Social Darwinism in Ernst Haeckel and the German Monist League (London, 1971).
6. 3); on Britain, see Bernhard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, 1960).
7. 3); on Britain, see Bernhard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, 1960).
8. 3); on Britain, see Bernhard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, 1960).
9. 3); on Britain, see Bernhard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, 1960).
10. Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History: The Debate over the Biology of War from the "Origin of Species" to the First World War (Cambridge, 1994); also Vernon Kellogg, Headquarters Nights (Boston, 1917), 22-32; Robert Munro, From Darwinism to Kaiserism (Glasgow, 1919); George Nasmyth, Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory (New York, 1916); P. Chalmers Mitchell, Evolution and the War (New York, 1915); William Jennings Bryan, In His Image (Freeport, N.Y., 1922; rprt. 1971), 124-25.
11. Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History: The Debate over the Biology of War from the "Origin of Species" to the First World War (Cambridge, 1994); also Vernon Kellogg, Headquarters Nights (Boston, 1917), 22-32; Robert Munro, From Darwinism to Kaiserism (Glasgow, 1919); George Nasmyth, Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory (New York, 1916); P. Chalmers Mitchell, Evolution and the War (New York, 1915); William Jennings Bryan, In His Image (Freeport, N.Y., 1922; rprt. 1971), 124-25.
12. Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History: The Debate over the Biology of War from the "Origin of Species" to the First World War (Cambridge, 1994); also Vernon Kellogg, Headquarters Nights (Boston, 1917), 22-32; Robert Munro, From Darwinism to Kaiserism (Glasgow, 1919); George Nasmyth, Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory (New York, 1916); P. Chalmers Mitchell, Evolution and the War (New York, 1915); William Jennings Bryan, In His Image (Freeport, N.Y., 1922; rprt. 1971), 124-25.
13. Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History: The Debate over the Biology of War from the "Origin of Species" to the First World War (Cambridge, 1994); also Vernon Kellogg, Headquarters Nights (Boston, 1917), 22-32; Robert Munro, From Darwinism to Kaiserism (Glasgow, 1919); George Nasmyth, Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory (New York, 1916); P. Chalmers Mitchell, Evolution and the War (New York, 1915); William Jennings Bryan, In His Image (Freeport, N.Y., 1922; rprt. 1971), 124-25.
14. Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History: The Debate over the Biology of War from the "Origin of Species" to the First World War (Cambridge, 1994); also Vernon Kellogg, Headquarters Nights (Boston, 1917), 22-32; Robert Munro, From Darwinism to Kaiserism (Glasgow, 1919); George Nasmyth, Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory (New York, 1916); P. Chalmers Mitchell, Evolution and the War (New York, 1915); William Jennings Bryan, In His Image (Freeport, N.Y., 1922; rprt. 1971), 124-25.
15. Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History: The Debate over the Biology of War from the "Origin of Species" to the First World War (Cambridge, 1994); also Vernon Kellogg, Headquarters Nights (Boston, 1917), 22-32; Robert Munro, From Darwinism to Kaiserism (Glasgow, 1919); George Nasmyth, Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory (New York, 1916); P. Chalmers Mitchell, Evolution and the War (New York, 1915); William Jennings Bryan, In His Image (Freeport, N.Y., 1922; rprt. 1971), 124-25.
16. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
17. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
18. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
19. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
20. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
21. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
22. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
23. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
24. The former include Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1955); Hans-Günter Zmarzlik, "Social Darwinism in Germany, Seen as a Historical Problem," in Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, ed. Hajo Holborn (New York, 1972); Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945 (Cambridge, 1997); Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," JHI, 54 (1993), 469-88, and "Laissez-Faire Social Darwinism and Individualist Competition in Darwin and Huxley," The European Legacy, 3 (1998), 17-30. The latter include Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The Varieties of Social Darwinism," in Victorian Minds (New York, 1968); Evans, "In Search of German Social Darwinism"; and Paul Weindling, "Dissecting German Social Darwinism: Historicizing the Biology of the Organic State," Science in Context, 11 (1998), 619-37; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), ch. 1.
25. See Richard Weikart, Socialist Darwinism: Evolution in German Socialist Thought from Marx to Bernstein (San Francisco, 1999); and Ted Benton, "Social Darwinism and Socialist Darwinism," Rivista difolosfia, 73 (1982), 79-121.
26. See Richard Weikart, Socialist Darwinism: Evolution in German Socialist Thought from Marx to Bernstein (San Francisco, 1999); and Ted Benton, "Social Darwinism and Socialist Darwinism," Rivista difolosfia, 73 (1982), 79-121.
27. Crook, Darwinism, War and History.
28. John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge, 1991 ); Holmes Rolston III, Science and Religion: A Critical Survey (Philadelphia, 1987); David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers (eds.), God and Nature (Berkeley, Calif., 1986); David N. Livingstone, D. G. Hart, and Mark A. Noll (ed.), Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspective (New York, 1999).
29. John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge, 1991 ); Holmes Rolston III, Science and Religion: A Critical Survey (Philadelphia, 1987); David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers (eds.), God and Nature (Berkeley, Calif., 1986); David N. Livingstone, D. G. Hart, and Mark A. Noll (ed.), Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspective (New York, 1999).
30. John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge, 1991 ); Holmes Rolston III, Science and Religion: A Critical Survey (Philadelphia, 1987); David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers (eds.), God and Nature (Berkeley, Calif., 1986); David N. Livingstone, D. G. Hart, and Mark A. Noll (ed.), Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspective (New York, 1999).
31. John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge, 1991 ); Holmes Rolston III, Science and Religion: A Critical Survey (Philadelphia, 1987); David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers (eds.), God and Nature (Berkeley, Calif., 1986); David N. Livingstone, D. G. Hart, and Mark A. Noll (ed.), Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspective (New York, 1999).
32. David N. Livingstone, Darwin's Forgoetten Defenders: The Encounter between Evangelical Theology and Evolutionary Thought (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1987); James R. Moore, The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870-1900 (Cambridge, 1979).
33. David N. Livingstone, Darwin's Forgoetten Defenders: The Encounter between Evangelical Theology and Evolutionary Thought (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1987); James R. Moore, The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870-1900 (Cambridge, 1979).
34. See Alfred Kelly, The Descent of Darwin: The Popularization of Darwinism in Germany, 1860-1914 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1981), ch. 5.
35. Ernst Haeckel, Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (Berlin, 1868), 5, 487.
36. Ludwig Büchner to Hermann Schaafhausen, 11 July 1863 (University of Bonn Library, Handschriftenabteilung, S 2620a).
37. Jürgen Sandmann, Der Bruch mit der humanitären Tradition. Die Biologisierung der Ethik bei Ernst Haeckel und anderen Darwinisten seiner Zeit (Stuttgart, 1990); Kelly, Descent of Darwin; Peter Emil Becker, Sozialdarwinismus, Rassismus, Antisemitismus und volkischer Gedanke: Wege in Dritte Reich (Stuttgart, 1990), esp. 502-4; Frank Simon-Ritz, Die Organisation einer Weltanschauung: Die freigeistige Bewegung im Wilhelminischen Deutschland (Gütersloh, 1997), 37-38.
38. Jürgen Sandmann, Der Bruch mit der humanitären Tradition. Die Biologisierung der Ethik bei Ernst Haeckel und anderen Darwinisten seiner Zeit (Stuttgart, 1990); Kelly, Descent of Darwin; Peter Emil Becker, Sozialdarwinismus, Rassismus, Antisemitismus und volkischer Gedanke: Wege in Dritte Reich (Stuttgart, 1990), esp. 502-4; Frank Simon-Ritz, Die Organisation einer Weltanschauung: Die freigeistige Bewegung im Wilhelminischen Deutschland (Gütersloh, 1997), 37-38.
39. Jürgen Sandmann, Der Bruch mit der humanitären Tradition. Die Biologisierung der Ethik bei Ernst Haeckel und anderen Darwinisten seiner Zeit (Stuttgart, 1990); Kelly, Descent of Darwin; Peter Emil Becker, Sozialdarwinismus, Rassismus, Antisemitismus und volkischer Gedanke: Wege in Dritte Reich (Stuttgart, 1990), esp. 502-4; Frank Simon-Ritz, Die Organisation einer Weltanschauung: Die freigeistige Bewegung im Wilhelminischen Deutschland (Gütersloh, 1997), 37-38.
40. Jürgen Sandmann, Der Bruch mit der humanitären Tradition. Die Biologisierung der Ethik bei Ernst Haeckel und anderen Darwinisten seiner Zeit (Stuttgart, 1990); Kelly, Descent of Darwin; Peter Emil Becker, Sozialdarwinismus, Rassismus, Antisemitismus und volkischer Gedanke: Wege in Dritte Reich (Stuttgart, 1990), esp. 502-4; Frank Simon-Ritz, Die Organisation einer Weltanschauung: Die freigeistige Bewegung im Wilhelminischen Deutschland (Gütersloh, 1997), 37-38.
41. Heinrich Ernst Ziegler, "Einleitung zu dem Sammelwerke Natur und Staat," in Natur und Staat, I (bound with Heinrich Matzat, Philosophie der Anpassung) (Jena, 1903), 1-2.
42. Heinrich Ernst Ziegler, "Einleitung zu dem Sammelwerke Natur und Staat," in Natur und Staat, I (bound with Heinrich Matzat, Philosophie der Anpassung) (Jena, 1903), 1-2.
43. Wilhelm Schallmayer, Vererbung und Auslese im Lebenslauf der Völker. Eine Staatswissenschaftliche Studie auf Grund der neueren Biologie (Jena, 1903), ix-x.
44. Alexander Tille, "Charles Darwin und die Ethik," Die Zukunft (Berlin), 8 (1894), 302-14.
45. Edward J. Larson and Darrel W. Amundsen, A Different Death: Euthanasia and the Christian Tradition (Downers Grove, Ill., 1998).
46. Some examples are found in Max Apel (ed.), Darwin. Seine Bedeutung im Ringen um Weltanschauung und Lebenswert (Berlin, 1909).
47. Peter Weingart, Jürgen Kroll, and Kurt Bayertz, Rasse, Blut, und Gene: Geschichte der Eugenik und Rassenhygiene in Deutschland (Frankfurt, 1988), 18.
48. Hans Walter Schmuhl, Rassenhygiene, Nationalsozialismus, Euthanasie: Von der Verhütungzur Vernichtung 'lebensunwerten Lebens' 1890-1945 (Göttingen, 1987), 18-19, 106.
49. Michael Schwartz, "'Euthanasie'-Debatten in Deutschland (1895-1945)," Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 46 (1998), 623.
50. Udo Benzenhöfer, Der gute Tod? Euthanasie und Sterbehilfe in Geschichte und Gegenwart (Munich, 1999), ch. 4.
51. Schallmayer, Vererbung und Auslese, 213.
52. Alexander Tille, Volksdienst (Berlin, 1893), 36.
53. August Forel, Die sexuelle Frage (Munich, 1905), 440-41.
54. Haeckel called this the "question of all questions," in "Ueber die heutige Entwickelungslehre im Verhältnisse zur Gesamtwissenschaft," in Amtlicher Bericht der 50. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte in München vom 17. bis 22. September 1877 (Munich, 1877), 14.
55. Ernst Haeckel, Die Lebenswunder (Stuttgart, 1904), 445.
56. Ernst Haeckel to his father, 21 March 1864, quoted in Heinrich Schmidt, Ernst Haeckel. Leben und Werke (Berlin, 1926), 203-4.
57. Haeckel, Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (1868), 546; David Friedrich Strauss, Der alte und der neue Glaube (Leipzig, 1872), 200-202.
58. Haeckel, Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (1868), 546; David Friedrich Strauss, Der alte und der neue Glaube (Leipzig, 1872), 200-202.
59. Robby Kossmann, "Die Bedeutung des Einzellebens in der Darwinistischen Weltanschauung," Nord und Süd, 12 (1880), 420-21; emphasis mine.
60. Robby Kossmann, Züchtungspolitik (Schmargendorf, 1905).
61. Alfred Hoche, Jahresringe: Innenansicht eines Menschenlebens (Munich, 1935), 22.
62. Karl Binding and Alfred Hoche, Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens: Ihr Mass und Ihre Form (Leipzig, 1920), 49-62.
63. Ernst Haeckel, Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre (Stuttgart, 1878), 73-74.
64. Ludwig Büchner, Die Macht der Vererbung und ihr Einfluss auf den moralischen und geistigen Fortschritt der Menschheit (Leipzig, 1882), 100.
65. Friedrich Hellwald, Culturgeschichte in ihrer natürlichen Entwicklung bis zur Gegenwart (Augsburg, 1875), 27; "Der Kampf ums Dasein im Menschen- und Völkerleben," Das Ausland, 45 (1872), 105.
66. Friedrich Hellwald, Culturgeschichte in ihrer natürlichen Entwicklung bis zur Gegenwart (Augsburg, 1875), 27; "Der Kampf ums Dasein im Menschen- und Völkerleben," Das Ausland, 45 (1872), 105.
67. Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (London, 1968), 459.
68. Ibid., 230.
69. August Weismann, "Ueber die Dauer des Lebens," in Aufsätze über Vererbung und Verwandte Biologische Fragen (Jena, 1892), 11, 27-28.
70. Weismann, "Ueber Leben und Tod," in ibid., 183-84.
71. Arnold Dodel, Moses oder Darwin? (Zurich, 1889), 90-91.
72. Ernst Haeckel, Freie Wissenschaft, 11.
73. Wilhelm Preyer, "Briefe von Darwin. Mit Erinnerungen und Erläuterungen," Deutsche Rundschau, 67 (1891), 382.
74. Oscar Schmidt, "Darwinismus und Sozialdemokratie," Deutsche Rundschau, 17 (1878), 289-90.
75. Hellwald, Culturgeschichte, 720.
76. Heinrich Ernst Ziegler, Die Naturwissenschaft und die Socialdemokratische Theorie (Stuttgart, 1893), 158; "Zu den Kritikern über das Jenenser Preisausschreiben," Politischanthropologische Revue, 3 (1904-5), 438.
77. Heinrich Ernst Ziegler, Die Naturwissenschaft und die Socialdemokratische Theorie (Stuttgart, 1893), 158; "Zu den Kritikern über das Jenenser Preisausschreiben," Politischanthropologische Revue, 3 (1904-5), 438.
78. Carl Vogt, Vorlesungen über den Menschen (2 vols.; Giessen, 1863), I, 214, 256.
79. Ibid., I, 295.
80. Haeckel, Lebenswunder, ch. 17.
81. See Weingart et al, Rasse, Blut, und Gene, 254ff; Sheila Faith Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency: The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer (Berkeley, Calif.,1987), 158; Gisela Bock, Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus (Opladen, 1986), 61ff.
82. See Weingart et al, Rasse, Blut, und Gene, 254ff; Sheila Faith Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency: The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer (Berkeley, Calif.,1987), 158; Gisela Bock, Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus (Opladen, 1986), 61ff.
83. See Weingart et al, Rasse, Blut, und Gene, 254ff; Sheila Faith Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency: The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer (Berkeley, Calif.,1987), 158; Gisela Bock, Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus (Opladen, 1986), 61ff.
84. Alfred Ploetz, Die Tüchtigkeit unsrer Rasse und der Schutz der Schwachen (Berlin, 1895), 194-96.
85. Schallmayer, Vererbung und Auslese, 371.
86. Michael Schwartz, Sozialistische Eugenik: Eugenische Sozialtechnologien in Debatten und Politik der deutschen Sozialdemokratie, 1890-1933 (Bonn, 1995).
87. Alfred Blaschko, "Natürliche Auslese und Klassentheilung," Die neue Zeit, 13,1 (1894-95), 615.
88. 2), 342-45.
89. Hugo Ribbert, Heredity, Disease and Human Evolution, tr. Eden and Cedar Paul (New York, 1918), 57.
90. Alfred Grotjahn, "Das Problem der Entartung," Archiv für soziale Hygiene, 6 (1910),74.
91. August Forel, Die sexuelle Frage, 457.
92. "Preisausschreiben," Die Umschau, 15 (1911), 127-28.
93. 2), 155.
94. Hellwald, Culturgeschichte, 276.
95. Quote in Ernst Haeckel, Ewigkeit: Weltkriegsgedanken über Leben und Tod, Religion und Entwicklungslehre (Berlin, 1917), 3 3-34; and see Haeckel, Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, 152-55; and Lebenswunder, 22, 135-36, 371-72, 375.
96. Quote in Ernst Haeckel, Ewigkeit: Weltkriegsgedanken über Leben und Tod, Religion und Entwicklungslehre (Berlin, 1917), 3 3-34; and see Haeckel, Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, 152-55; and Lebenswunder, 22, 135-36, 371-72, 375.
97. Quote in Ernst Haeckel, Ewigkeit: Weltkriegsgedanken über Leben und Tod, Religion und Entwicklungslehre (Berlin, 1917), 3 3-34; and see Haeckel, Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, 152-55; and Lebenswunder, 22, 135-36, 371-72, 375.
98. Dodel, Moses oder Darwin?, 72-73.
99. Haeckel, Lebenswunder, 375.
100. 6), 145.
101. Haeckel, Lebenswunder, 128, 132.
102. Ludwig Gumplowicz, Sozialphilosophie im Umriss (1910), in Emil Brix (ed.), Ludwig Gumplowicz oder die Gesellschaft als Natur (Vienna, 1986), 272-73.
103. Ludwig Gumplowicz, Sozialphilosophie im Umriss (1910), in Emil Brix (ed.), Ludwig Gumplowicz oder die Gesellschaft als Natur (Vienna, 1986), 272-73.
104. Bartholomäus Carneri, Der moderne Mensch: Versuch über Lebensführung, Volksausgabe (Stuttgart, 1901), 142.
105. Christian von Ehrenfels, "Gedanken über die Regeneration der Kulturmenschheit" (privately published, 1901; available at the Forschungsstelle und Dokumentationszentrum für Österreichische Philosophie, Graz, Austria), 41.
106. Haeckel, Lebenswunder, 134-35.
107. August Forel, Kulturbestrebungen der Gegenwart (Munich, 1910), 26-27.
108. Ploetz, Die Tüchtigkeit unsrer Rasse, 144-45.
109. Alfred Ploetz, "Ableitung einer Rassenhygiene und ihrer Beziehung zur Ethik," Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie, 19 (1895), 370.
110. Schallmayer, Vererbung und Auslese, 210.
111. Agnes Bluhm, "Eugenics and Obstetrics," in Problems in Eugenics: Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress (London, 1912; rprt. New York, 1984), 395.
112. Roland Gerkan, "Euthanasie," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2(1913), 169-74; Wilhelm Ostwald, "Euthanasie," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2 (1913), 337-41.
113. Roland Gerkan, "Euthanasie," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2(1913), 169-74; Wilhelm Ostwald, "Euthanasie," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2 (1913), 337-41.
114. Eugen Wolfsdorf, "Euthanasie und Monismus," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2(1913), 305-9.
115. Dr. A. Braune, "Euthanasie und Arzt," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2 (1913-14), 871-73; Friedrich Siebert, in Heinrich Schmidt (ed.), Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (2 vols.; Leipzig, 1914), I, 339-51.
116. Dr. A. Braune, "Euthanasie und Arzt," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2 (1913-14), 871-73; Friedrich Siebert, in Heinrich Schmidt (ed.), Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (2 vols.; Leipzig, 1914), I, 339-51.
117. Wilhelm Borner, "Euthanasie (Eine Erwiderung)," Das monistische Jahrhundert, 2 (1913), 249-54.
118. Otto Ehinger, "Der Grund der Abtreibungsbestrafung," Die neue Generation, 8 (1912), 237-38.
119. Eduard David, "Darwinismus und soziale Entwicklung," in Max Apel (ed.), Darwin, 59.
120. Alfred Meyer, The Feminism and Socialism of Lily Braun (Bloomington, 1985), 147.
121. Agnes Bluhm, "Frauenbewegung, Strafrecht, und Rassenhygiene," Archiv für Rassen-und Gesellschaftsbiologie, 6 (1909), 134-39.
122. Doris Byer, Rassenhygiene und Wohlfahrtspflege: Zur Entstehung eines sozialdemokratischen Machtdispositivs in Österreich bis 1934 (Frankfurt, 1988), 121-23.
123. Ernst Rüdin, "Rassenhygiene und kommunaler Schutz der Minderwertigen," Archiv für Rassen-und Gesellschaftsbiologie, 5 (1908), 153-54.
124. Alfred Grotjahn, "Wahre und falsche Euthanasie," n.d. [c. 1919], in Alfred Grotjahn papers, 303, at Humboldt University Archives.
125. Ehrenfels, "Gedanken," 41.
126. Klaus Christian Köhnke, The Rise of Neo-Kantianism: German Academic Philosophy between Idealism and Positivism, tr. R. J. Hollingdale (Cambridge, 1991); Frederick Gregory, Nature Lost? Natural Science and the German Theological Traditions of the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1992).
127. Klaus Christian Köhnke, The Rise of Neo-Kantianism: German Academic Philosophy between Idealism and Positivism, tr. R. J. Hollingdale (Cambridge, 1991); Frederick Gregory, Nature Lost? Natural Science and the German Theological Traditions of the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1992).
128. Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency, 158.
129. Bruce Fye, "Active Euthanasia: An Historical Survey of Its conceptual Origins and Introduction into Medical Thought," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 52 (1978), 497-500.
130. Ian Dowbiggin, Mixed Motives: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America (Oxford, forthcoming).
131. Joachim Müller, Sterilisation und Gesetzgebung bis 1933 (Husum, 1985); Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen (ed.), Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland (East Lansing, Mich., 1996); William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (Cambridge, 1990); Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity, 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1995).
132. Joachim Müller, Sterilisation und Gesetzgebung bis 1933 (Husum, 1985); Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen (ed.), Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland (East Lansing, Mich., 1996); William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (Cambridge, 1990); Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity, 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1995).
133. Joachim Müller, Sterilisation und Gesetzgebung bis 1933 (Husum, 1985); Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen (ed.), Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland (East Lansing, Mich., 1996); William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (Cambridge, 1990); Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity, 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1995).
134. Joachim Müller, Sterilisation und Gesetzgebung bis 1933 (Husum, 1985); Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen (ed.), Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland (East Lansing, Mich., 1996); William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (Cambridge, 1990); Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity, 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1995).
135. See Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene (Cambridge, 1988); Arthur L. Caplan (ed.), When Medicine Went Mad: Bioethics and the Holocaust (Totowa, N.J., 1992); Michael H. Kater, Doctors under Hitler (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); Robert Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York, 1986).
136. See Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene (Cambridge, 1988); Arthur L. Caplan (ed.), When Medicine Went Mad: Bioethics and the Holocaust (Totowa, N.J., 1992); Michael H. Kater, Doctors under Hitler (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); Robert Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York, 1986).
137. See Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene (Cambridge, 1988); Arthur L. Caplan (ed.), When Medicine Went Mad: Bioethics and the Holocaust (Totowa, N.J., 1992); Michael H. Kater, Doctors under Hitler (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); Robert Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York, 1986).
138. See Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene (Cambridge, 1988); Arthur L. Caplan (ed.), When Medicine Went Mad: Bioethics and the Holocaust (Totowa, N.J., 1992); Michael H. Kater, Doctors under Hitler (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); Robert Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York, 1986).