Trading Jobs for Health: Ionizing Radiation, Occupational Ethics, and the Welfare Argument

Science and Engineering Ethics

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 139-154

  Shrader Frechette, Kristin ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

^b 100 Malloy Hall ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Compensating wage differential (CWD); Environmental injustice; Hazard pay; Ionizing radiation; Nuclear weapons; Nuclear workers; Occupational ethics

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ECONOMICS; HUMAN; IONIZING RADIATION; MEDICAL ETHICS; NUCLEAR ENERGY; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; SAFETY; SALARY AND FRINGE BENEFIT; WORKPLACE;

ETHICS, PROFESSIONAL; HUMANS; NUCLEAR ENERGY; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; RADIATION, IONIZING; SAFETY; SALARIES AND FRINGE BENEFITS; WORKPLACE;

EID: 0036527344     PISSN: 13533452     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11948-002-0015-4     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Leigh, J. Paul (1995) Causes of Death in the Workplace, Quorum Books, London, pp. 3-7, 215.
2. Gersuny, Carl (1981) Work Hazards and Industrial Conflict, University Press of New England, Hanover, p. xi. See National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Identifying High-Risk Small Business (1999) NIOSH, Washington, DC.
3. For this argument, see Wallach, Lori and Sforza, Michelle (1999) Whose Trade Organization? Public Citizen, Washington, DC, esp. chs. 6-7.
4. Gersuny, Carl (1981) Work Hazards and Industrial Conflict, p. 1. Some of the material in this article is based on Shrader-Frechette, K.S. (1985) Risk Analysis and Scientific Method, Kluwer, Boston, ch. 4. For the classic analysis of workplace health, see Ashford, Nicholas (1976) Crisis in the Workplace: Occupational Disease and Injury, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
5. Gersuny, Carl (1981) Work Hazards and Industrial Conflict, p. 1. Some of the material in this article is based on Shrader-Frechette, K.S. (1985) Risk Analysis and Scientific Method, Kluwer, Boston, ch. 4. For the classic analysis of workplace health, see Ashford, Nicholas (1976) Crisis in the Workplace: Occupational Disease and Injury, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
6. Gersuny, Carl (1981) Work Hazards and Industrial Conflict, p. 1. Some of the material in this article is based on Shrader-Frechette, K.S. (1985) Risk Analysis and Scientific Method, Kluwer, Boston, ch. 4. For the classic analysis of workplace health, see Ashford, Nicholas (1976) Crisis in the Workplace: Occupational Disease and Injury, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
7. Douglas, M. and Wildavsky, A. (1982) Risk and Culture, University of California Press, Berkeley, p. 9.
8. The toilet-seat example is from Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp. 114-115, 136.
9. Eckholm, E. (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, Environment, 19, no. 6 (August/September): 31-32.
10. Quoted by Eckholm (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, p. 32. For an excellent treatment of the history of occupational risk and disease, see Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, Monthly Review Press, London. See also the numerous case studies in Lave, L.B. (ed.) (1982) Quantitative Risk Assessment in Regulation, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, chapters 3-8. Finally, see Broome, John (1999) Ethics Out of Economics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne. Ackerman, F., Kiron, D., Goodwin, N., Harris, J. and Gallagher, K. (eds.) (1997) Human Well-Being and Economic Goals, Island Press, Washington, DC. Ackerman, Frank (2000) The Political Economy of Inequality, Island Press, Washington.
11. Quoted by Eckholm (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, p. 32. For an excellent treatment of the history of occupational risk and disease, see Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, Monthly Review Press, London. See also the numerous case studies in Lave, L.B. (ed.) (1982) Quantitative Risk Assessment in Regulation, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, chapters 3-8. Finally, see Broome, John (1999) Ethics Out of Economics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne. Ackerman, F., Kiron, D., Goodwin, N., Harris, J. and Gallagher, K. (eds.) (1997) Human Well-Being and Economic Goals, Island Press, Washington, DC. Ackerman, Frank (2000) The Political Economy of Inequality, Island Press, Washington.
12. Quoted by Eckholm (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, p. 32. For an excellent treatment of the history of occupational risk and disease, see Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, Monthly Review Press, London. See also the numerous case studies in Lave, L.B. (ed.) (1982) Quantitative Risk Assessment in Regulation, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, chapters 3-8. Finally, see Broome, John (1999) Ethics Out of Economics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne. Ackerman, F., Kiron, D., Goodwin, N., Harris, J. and Gallagher, K. (eds.) (1997) Human Well-Being and Economic Goals, Island Press, Washington, DC. Ackerman, Frank (2000) The Political Economy of Inequality, Island Press, Washington.
13. Quoted by Eckholm (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, p. 32. For an excellent treatment of the history of occupational risk and disease, see Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, Monthly Review Press, London. See also the numerous case studies in Lave, L.B. (ed.) (1982) Quantitative Risk Assessment in Regulation, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, chapters 3-8. Finally, see Broome, John (1999) Ethics Out of Economics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne. Ackerman, F., Kiron, D., Goodwin, N., Harris, J. and Gallagher, K. (eds.) (1997) Human Well-Being and Economic Goals, Island Press, Washington, DC. Ackerman, Frank (2000) The Political Economy of Inequality, Island Press, Washington.
14. Quoted by Eckholm (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, p. 32. For an excellent treatment of the history of occupational risk and disease, see Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, Monthly Review Press, London. See also the numerous case studies in Lave, L.B. (ed.) (1982) Quantitative Risk Assessment in Regulation, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, chapters 3-8. Finally, see Broome, John (1999) Ethics Out of Economics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne. Ackerman, F., Kiron, D., Goodwin, N., Harris, J. and Gallagher, K. (eds.) (1997) Human Well-Being and Economic Goals, Island Press, Washington, DC. Ackerman, Frank (2000) The Political Economy of Inequality, Island Press, Washington.
15. Quoted by Eckholm (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, p. 32. For an excellent treatment of the history of occupational risk and disease, see Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, Monthly Review Press, London. See also the numerous case studies in Lave, L.B. (ed.) (1982) Quantitative Risk Assessment in Regulation, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, chapters 3-8. Finally, see Broome, John (1999) Ethics Out of Economics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne. Ackerman, F., Kiron, D., Goodwin, N., Harris, J. and Gallagher, K. (eds.) (1997) Human Well-Being and Economic Goals, Island Press, Washington, DC. Ackerman, Frank (2000) The Political Economy of Inequality, Island Press, Washington.
16. Kniesner, Thomas and Leeth, John (1991) Compensating Wage Differentials for Fatal Injury Risk, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 4, no. 1 (January): 75-90.
17. Kates, R.W. (1978) Risk Assessment of Environmental Hazards, John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 46-47. Robinson, James (1991) Toil and Toxics, University of California Press, Berkeley, p. 74. For the New Zealand example, see Dwyer, Tom (1991) Life and Death at Work, Plenum, New York, p. 250.
18. Kates, R.W. (1978) Risk Assessment of Environmental Hazards, John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 46-47. Robinson, James (1991) Toil and Toxics, University of California Press, Berkeley, p. 74. For the New Zealand example, see Dwyer, Tom (1991) Life and Death at Work, Plenum, New York, p. 250.
19. Kates, R.W. (1978) Risk Assessment of Environmental Hazards, John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 46-47. Robinson, James (1991) Toil and Toxics, University of California Press, Berkeley, p. 74. For the New Zealand example, see Dwyer, Tom (1991) Life and Death at Work, Plenum, New York, p. 250.
20. Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, pp. 192-193; Kates, R.W. (1978) Risk Assessment of Environmental Hazards, pp. 168-174.
21. Berman, D.M. (1978) Death on the Job, pp. 192-193; Kates, R.W. (1978) Risk Assessment of Environmental Hazards, pp. 168-174.
22. The US, like most nations, follows the recommendations given in International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (1991) 1990 Recommendations of the ICRP-ICRP Publication 60, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
23. See Shrader-Frechette, K.S. (1985) Risk Analysis and Scientific Method, Kluwer, Boston, chapter 2. The method of revealed preferences consists of examining actual risk levels faced in society, levels to which society allegedly gives implicit consent The method of expressed preferences consists of using survey data to determine people's risk preferences.
24. For this point of view, see Starr, C. (1969) Social Benefit Versus Technological Risk, Science 165, no. 3899 (19 September): 1232-1233. See also Rescher, N. (1983) Risk: A Philosophical Introduction, University Press of America, Washington, DC, p. 172, who argues that involuntary risks are less acceptable and hence ought to be subject to more stringent standards.
25. For this point of view, see Starr, C. (1969) Social Benefit Versus Technological Risk, Science 165, no. 3899 (19 September): 1232-1233. See also Rescher, N. (1983) Risk: A Philosophical Introduction, University Press of America, Washington, DC, p. 172, who argues that involuntary risks are less acceptable and hence ought to be subject to more stringent standards.
26. Starr, C. (1976) General Philosophy of Risk-Benefit Analysis, in: Ashley, H., Rudman, R. and Whipple, C. (eds.) Energy and the Environment, Pergamon, New York, p. 16; See reference 10 above and Siebert, W.S. and Xiangdong Wei (1998) Wage Compensation for Job Risks, Asian Economic Journal 12, no. 2 (June): 171-81.
27. Starr, C. (1976) General Philosophy of Risk-Benefit Analysis, in: Ashley, H., Rudman, R. and Whipple, C. (eds.) Energy and the Environment, Pergamon, New York, p. 16; See reference 10 above and Siebert, W.S. and Xiangdong Wei (1998) Wage Compensation for Job Risks, Asian Economic Journal 12, no. 2 (June): 171-81.
28. See, for example, Craig, Lee A.(1995) The Political Economy of Public Private Compensation Differentials, Journal of Economic History 55, no. 2 (June): 304-20; Gale, H. Frederick (1998) Labor Productivity and Wages, Review of Regional Studies 28, no. 1 (Summer): 13-26; and Dorman, P. (1996) Markets and Mortality, Cambridge University Press, New York.
29. See, for example, Craig, Lee A.(1995) The Political Economy of Public Private Compensation Differentials, Journal of Economic History 55, no. 2 (June): 304-20; Gale, H. Frederick (1998) Labor Productivity and Wages, Review of Regional Studies 28, no. 1 (Summer): 13-26; and Dorman, P. (1996) Markets and Mortality, Cambridge University Press, New York.
30. See, for example, Craig, Lee A.(1995) The Political Economy of Public Private Compensation Differentials, Journal of Economic History 55, no. 2 (June): 304-20; Gale, H. Frederick (1998) Labor Productivity and Wages, Review of Regional Studies 28, no. 1 (Summer): 13-26; and Dorman, P. (1996) Markets and Mortality, Cambridge University Press, New York.
31. Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, pp. 37ff., 156-168; See also Dobbs, Ian M. (1999) Compensating Wage Differentials, Economics Letters 63, no.1 (April): 103-109; See also MacLean, Douglas (1981) Risk and Consent: A Survey of Issues for Centralized Decision Making, working paper (Center for Philosophy and Public Policy, College Park), pp. 6-9; MacLean refers to the theory of compensating wage differentials as part of what he calls the "model of implied consent".
32. Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, pp. 37ff., 156-168; See also Dobbs, Ian M. (1999) Compensating Wage Differentials, Economics Letters 63, no.1 (April): 103-109; See also MacLean, Douglas (1981) Risk and Consent: A Survey of Issues for Centralized Decision Making, working paper (Center for Philosophy and Public Policy, College Park), pp. 6-9; MacLean refers to the theory of compensating wage differentials as part of what he calls the "model of implied consent".
33. Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, pp. 37ff., 156-168; See also Dobbs, Ian M. (1999) Compensating Wage Differentials, Economics Letters 63, no.1 (April): 103-109; See also MacLean, Douglas (1981) Risk and Consent: A Survey of Issues for Centralized Decision Making, working paper (Center for Philosophy and Public Policy, College Park), pp. 6-9; MacLean refers to the theory of compensating wage differentials as part of what he calls the "model of implied consent".
34. For discussion of Smith's theory, see Robinson, J. (1991) Toil and Toxics, pp. 5, 77. For discussion of the four conditions for free informed consent, as recognized by biomedical ethicists, see Beauchamp, T. and Childress, J. (eds.) (1989) Principles of Biomedical Ethics, Oxford, New York, pp. 85-99. See reference 16.
35. For discussion of Smith's theory, see Robinson, J. (1991) Toil and Toxics, pp. 5, 77. For discussion of the four conditions for free informed consent, as recognized by biomedical ethicists, see Beauchamp, T. and Childress, J. (eds.) (1989) Principles of Biomedical Ethics, Oxford, New York, pp. 85-99. See reference 16.
36. Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, pp. 46, 52. This argument also is in Dorman, Peter (1996) Markets and Mortality, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 26ff.
37. Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, pp. 46, 52. This argument also is in Dorman, Peter (1996) Markets and Mortality, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 26ff.
38. Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, p. 52; See also Douglas, M. and Wildavsky, A. (1982) Risk and Culture, pp. 69ff.
39. Viscusi, W.K. (1983) Risk by Choice, p. 52; See also Douglas, M. and Wildavsky, A. (1982) Risk and Culture, pp. 69ff.
40. For discrepancies between preferences and CWD, as measures of welfare, see Broome, Ethics Out of Economics, pp. 192ff.; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei (1992) On Measuring the Value of Life, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei, (1995) On Measuring the Value of Life, Economics Letters 49, no. 3 (September): 223-30. For discrepancies between preferences and needs, see Doyal, L. and Gough, I. (1991) A Theory of Human Needs, Macmillan. London.
41. For discrepancies between preferences and CWD, as measures of welfare, see Broome, Ethics Out of Economics, pp. 192ff.; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei (1992) On Measuring the Value of Life, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei, (1995) On Measuring the Value of Life, Economics Letters 49, no. 3 (September): 223-30. For discrepancies between preferences and needs, see Doyal, L. and Gough, I. (1991) A Theory of Human Needs, Macmillan. London.
42. For discrepancies between preferences and CWD, as measures of welfare, see Broome, Ethics Out of Economics, pp. 192ff.; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei (1992) On Measuring the Value of Life, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei, (1995) On Measuring the Value of Life, Economics Letters 49, no. 3 (September): 223-30. For discrepancies between preferences and needs, see Doyal, L. and Gough, I. (1991) A Theory of Human Needs, Macmillan. London.
43. For discrepancies between preferences and CWD, as measures of welfare, see Broome, Ethics Out of Economics, pp. 192ff.; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei (1992) On Measuring the Value of Life, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; Ford, J.L., Pattanaik, P.K. and Xiandong Wei, (1995) On Measuring the Value of Life, Economics Letters 49, no. 3 (September): 223-30. For discrepancies between preferences and needs, see Doyal, L. and Gough, I. (1991) A Theory of Human Needs, Macmillan. London.
44. For discussion of conditions for free informed consent, see references 13 & 17.
45. See references 13-15 earlier in this article. For discussion of labor segmentation theory and primary and secondary labor groups see, for example, Beck, Matthias (1998) Dualism in the German Labor Market, American Journal of Economics and Sociology (July). See reference 4.
46. See, for example, Moore, Michael J. (1995) Unions, Employment Risks, and Market Provision of Employment Risk Differentials, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 10, no. 1 (January): 57-70; Daniel, Christophe and Sofer, Catherine (1998) Bargaining, Compensating Wage Differentials, and Dualism of the Labor Market, Journal of Labor Economics (July); Dorman, Peter and Hagstrom, Paul (1998) Wage Compensation for Dangerous Work Revisited, Industrial and Labor Relations Review (October). For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45. Their work has been confirmed by later studies; see, for example, Rees, Hedley and Shah, Anup (1992) The Economic Effects of Collective Bargaining, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Disney, Richard and Whitehouse, Edward (1990) Do Wage Differentials Compensate Occupational Pension Entitlements? Institute for Fiscal Studies, University of Kent, UK; and Harmest, Daniel and Wolfe, John (1990 ) Compensating Wage Differentials, Journal of Labor Economics 8, no. 1 (January): S175-S197; Hirsch, Barry T. (1993) Trucking Deregulation and Labor Earnings: Is the Union Premium a Compensating Differential? Journal of Labor Economics 11, no. 2 (April): 279-301.
47. See, for example, Moore, Michael J. (1995) Unions, Employment Risks, and Market Provision of Employment Risk Differentials, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 10, no. 1 (January): 57-70; Daniel, Christophe and Sofer, Catherine (1998) Bargaining, Compensating Wage Differentials, and Dualism of the Labor Market, Journal of Labor Economics (July); Dorman, Peter and Hagstrom, Paul (1998) Wage Compensation for Dangerous Work Revisited, Industrial and Labor Relations Review (October). For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45. Their work has been confirmed by later studies; see, for example, Rees, Hedley and Shah, Anup (1992) The Economic Effects of Collective Bargaining, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Disney, Richard and Whitehouse, Edward (1990) Do Wage Differentials Compensate Occupational Pension Entitlements? Institute for Fiscal Studies, University of Kent, UK; and Harmest, Daniel and Wolfe, John (1990 ) Compensating Wage Differentials, Journal of Labor Economics 8, no. 1 (January): S175-S197; Hirsch, Barry T. (1993) Trucking Deregulation and Labor Earnings: Is the Union Premium a Compensating Differential? Journal of Labor Economics 11, no. 2 (April): 279-301.
48. See, for example, Moore, Michael J. (1995) Unions, Employment Risks, and Market Provision of Employment Risk Differentials, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 10, no. 1 (January): 57-70; Daniel, Christophe and Sofer, Catherine (1998) Bargaining, Compensating Wage Differentials, and Dualism of the Labor Market, Journal of Labor Economics (July); Dorman, Peter and Hagstrom, Paul (1998) Wage Compensation for Dangerous Work Revisited, Industrial and Labor Relations Review (October). For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45. Their work has been confirmed by later studies; see, for example, Rees, Hedley and Shah, Anup (1992) The Economic Effects of Collective Bargaining, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Disney, Richard and Whitehouse, Edward (1990) Do Wage Differentials Compensate Occupational Pension Entitlements? Institute for Fiscal Studies, University of Kent, UK; and Harmest, Daniel and Wolfe, John (1990 ) Compensating Wage Differentials, Journal of Labor Economics 8, no. 1 (January): S175-S197; Hirsch, Barry T. (1993) Trucking Deregulation and Labor Earnings: Is the Union Premium a Compensating Differential? Journal of Labor Economics 11, no. 2 (April): 279-301.
49. For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45.
50. For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45. Their work has been confirmed by later studies; see, for example, Rees, Hedley and Shah, Anup (1992) The Economic Effects of Collective Bargaining, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Disney, Richard and Whitehouse, Edward (1990) Do Wage Differentials Compensate Occupational Pension Entitlements? Institute for Fiscal Studies, University of Kent, UK; and Harmest, Daniel and Wolfe, John (1990 ) Compensating Wage Differentials, Journal of Labor Economics 8, no. 1 (January): S175-S197; Hirsch, Barry T. (1993) Trucking Deregulation and Labor Earnings: Is the Union Premium a Compensating Differential? Journal of Labor Economics 11, no. 2 (April): 279-301.
51. For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45. Their work has been confirmed by later studies; see, for example, Rees, Hedley and Shah, Anup (1992) The Economic Effects of Collective Bargaining, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Disney, Richard and Whitehouse, Edward (1990) Do Wage Differentials Compensate Occupational Pension Entitlements? Institute for Fiscal Studies, University of Kent, UK; and Harmest, Daniel and Wolfe, John (1990 ) Compensating Wage Differentials, Journal of Labor Economics 8, no. 1 (January): S175-S197; Hirsch, Barry T. (1993) Trucking Deregulation and Labor Earnings: Is the Union Premium a Compensating Differential? Journal of Labor Economics 11, no. 2 (April): 279-301.
52. For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45. Their work has been confirmed by later studies; see, for example, Rees, Hedley and Shah, Anup (1992) The Economic Effects of Collective Bargaining, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Disney, Richard and Whitehouse, Edward (1990) Do Wage Differentials Compensate Occupational Pension Entitlements? Institute for Fiscal Studies, University of Kent, UK; and Harmest, Daniel and Wolfe, John (1990 ) Compensating Wage Differentials, Journal of Labor Economics 8, no. 1 (January): S175-S197; Hirsch, Barry T. (1993) Trucking Deregulation and Labor Earnings: Is the Union Premium a Compensating Differential? Journal of Labor Economics 11, no. 2 (April): 279-301.
53. For the classic work denying the CWD among those workers who need it most, see the previous reference and, for example, Graham, J. and Shakow, D. (1981) Risk and Reward, Environment 23, no. 8 (October): 14-45. Their work has been confirmed by later studies; see, for example, Rees, Hedley and Shah, Anup (1992) The Economic Effects of Collective Bargaining, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Disney, Richard and Whitehouse, Edward (1990) Do Wage Differentials Compensate Occupational Pension Entitlements? Institute for Fiscal Studies, University of Kent, UK; and Harmest, Daniel and Wolfe, John (1990 ) Compensating Wage Differentials, Journal of Labor Economics 8, no. 1 (January): S175-S197; Hirsch, Barry T. (1993) Trucking Deregulation and Labor Earnings: Is the Union Premium a Compensating Differential? Journal of Labor Economics 11, no. 2 (April): 279-301.
54. For discussion of this topic and relevant bibliographical materials, see Shrader-Frechette, K.S. (1991) Environmental Ethics, Boxwood, Pacific Grove, CA, Ch. 3.
55. Rescher, N. (1983) Risk: A Philosophical Introduction, p. 161.
56. Rescher, N. (1983) Risk: A Philosophical Introduction, p. 162.
57. Eckholm, E. (1977) Unhealthy Jobs, Environment, 19: 30.
58. th Congress, Serial No. 106-43, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 57, 59 of pp. 57-61.
59. US General Accounting Office (GAO) (1998) DOE: Clear Strategy on External Regulation Needed for Worker and Nuclear Facility Safety, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, p. 4.
60. O'Toole, Tara (1994) Testimony, In US Congress, Worker Safety at DOE Nuclear Sites, Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, March 17, 1994, Serial No. 103-96, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 33-35 of pp. 32-87.
61. US General Accounting Office (1999) DOE: DOE's Nuclear Safety Enforcement Program Should Be Strengthened, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, p. 8. James Wells of the US GAO, Testimony, in US Congress-1994, p. 13 of pp. 7-18.
62. US General Accounting Office (1999) DOE: DOE's Nuclear Safety Enforcement Program Should Be Strengthened, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, p. 8. James Wells of the US GAO, Testimony, in US Congress-1994, p. 13 of pp. 7-18.
63. Upton, Frederick (1999) US Representative, Michigan, in US Congress, Worker Safety at DOE Nuclear Facilities, Committee on Commerce, US House of Representatives, June 29, 1999, Serial 106-43, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, p. 2. John Barton, US Representative, Texas, Testimony, in Congress-1999, p. 6.
64. Upton, Frederick (1999) US Representative, Michigan, in US Congress, Worker Safety at DOE Nuclear Facilities, Committee on Commerce, US House of Representatives, June 29, 1999, Serial 106-43, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, p. 2. John Barton, US Representative, Texas, Testimony, in Congress-1999, p. 6.
65. Jones, Gary (1999) US GAO, Testimony, in Congress-1999, p. 8.
66. GAO, DOE: DOE's Nuclear Safety Enforcement Program Should Be Strengthened, p. 8. Jones, Testimony, p. 8.
67. GAO, DOE: DOE's Nuclear Safety Enforcement Program Should Be Strengthened, p. 8. Jones, Testimony, p. 8.
68. Jones, Testimony, p. 39.
69. Congress of the US, Office of Technology Assessment (1991) Complex Cleanup: The Environmental Legacy of Nuclear Weapons Production, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 141, 143.
70. GAO, DOE: Clear Strategy on External Regulation Needed for Worker and Nuclear Facility Safety, pp. 1, 3.
71. For information on the DOE compensation program, see material at http://tis.eh.doe.gov/advocacy/factsheets/factsheet010622.pdf and for information on the current status of the program see http://tis.eh.doc.gov/advocacy/status/status.html