The checkered history and bright future of intrauterine contraception in the United States

Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 98-103

  Hubacher, David ^a  

^a FAMILY HEALTH INTERNATIONAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COPPER INTRAUTERINE DEVICE; LEVONORGESTREL;

FEMALE PHYSICIAN; FEMALE STERILIZATION; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; INSURANCE; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; INTRAUTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE; REVIEW; UNITED STATES;

FEMALE; FORECASTING; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; HUMANS; INTRAUTERINE DEVICES; PATIENT ACCEPTANCE OF HEALTH CARE; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY, UNWANTED; PUBLIC HEALTH; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0036524742     PISSN: 15386341     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3030213     Document Type: Review

References (75)

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2. Eschenbach DA, Earth, motherhood, and the intrauterine device, editorial, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 57(6):1177-1179; Grimes DA, The intrauterine device, pelvic inflammatory disease, and infertility: the confusion between hypothesis and knowledge, comment, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 58(4):670-673; Mumford SD, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):188-189; Rosenberg MJ, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):189-190; and Eschenbach DA, Flak jacket for editors, author's reply, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):190-191.
3. Eschenbach DA, Earth, motherhood, and the intrauterine device, editorial, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 57(6):1177-1179; Grimes DA, The intrauterine device, pelvic inflammatory disease, and infertility: the confusion between hypothesis and knowledge, comment, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 58(4):670-673; Mumford SD, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):188-189; Rosenberg MJ, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):189-190; and Eschenbach DA, Flak jacket for editors, author's reply, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):190-191.
4. Eschenbach DA, Earth, motherhood, and the intrauterine device, editorial, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 57(6):1177-1179; Grimes DA, The intrauterine device, pelvic inflammatory disease, and infertility: the confusion between hypothesis and knowledge, comment, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 58(4):670-673; Mumford SD, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):188-189; Rosenberg MJ, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):189-190; and Eschenbach DA, Flak jacket for editors, author's reply, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):190-191.
5. Eschenbach DA, Earth, motherhood, and the intrauterine device, editorial, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 57(6):1177-1179; Grimes DA, The intrauterine device, pelvic inflammatory disease, and infertility: the confusion between hypothesis and knowledge, comment, Fertility and Sterility, 1992, 58(4):670-673; Mumford SD, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):188-189; Rosenberg MJ, Flak jacket for editors, letter, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):189-190; and Eschenbach DA, Flak jacket for editors, author's reply, Fertility and Sterility, 1993, 60(1):190-191.
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8. Spinnato JA 2nd, Mechanism of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices and its relation to informed consent, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 176(3):503-506; Mastroianni L, Jr., No evidence to support intrauterine contraceptive device and embryo destruction, letter, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 177(4):980; Segal SJ, Intrauterine contraceptive devices act before fertilization, letter, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 177(4):980-981; and Borgatta L, Mechanism of intrauterine device contraceptive action, letter, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 177(4):976-977.
9. Spinnato JA 2nd, Mechanism of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices and its relation to informed consent, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 176(3):503-506; Mastroianni L, Jr., No evidence to support intrauterine contraceptive device and embryo destruction, letter, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 177(4):980; Segal SJ, Intrauterine contraceptive devices act before fertilization, letter, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 177(4):980-981; and Borgatta L, Mechanism of intrauterine device contraceptive action, letter, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1997, 177(4):976-977.
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14. Burkman RT, Association between intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 1981, 57(3):269-276; and Lee NC et al., Type of intrauterine device and the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 1983, 62(1):1-6.
15. Daling JR et al., Primary tubal infertility in relation to the use of an intrauterine device, New England Journal of Medicine, 1985, 312(15): 937-941; and Cramer DW et al., Tubal infertility and the intrauterine device, New England Journal of Medicine, 1985, 312(15):941-947.
16. Daling JR et al., Primary tubal infertility in relation to the use of an intrauterine device, New England Journal of Medicine, 1985, 312(15): 937-941; and Cramer DW et al., Tubal infertility and the intrauterine device, New England Journal of Medicine, 1985, 312(15):941-947.
17. Spinelli A, Talamanca IF and Lauria L, Patterns of contraceptive use in 5 European countries, American Journal of Public Health, 2000, 90(9):1403-1408.
18. Tone A, Devices and Desires, New York: Hill and Wang, 2001.
19. Hatcher RA et al., Contraceptive Technology, eighth ed., New York: Irvington Publishers, 1976.
20. Wolner-Hanssen P et al., Decreased risk of symptomatic chlamydial pelvic inflammatory disease associated with oral contraceptive use, Journal of the American Medical Association, 1990, 263(1):54-59; and Rubin GL, Ory HW and Layde PM, Oral contraceptives and pelvic inflammatory disease, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1982, 144(6):630-635.
21. Wolner-Hanssen P et al., Decreased risk of symptomatic chlamydial pelvic inflammatory disease associated with oral contraceptive use, Journal of the American Medical Association, 1990, 263(1):54-59; and Rubin GL, Ory HW and Layde PM, Oral contraceptives and pelvic inflammatory disease, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1982, 144(6):630-635.
22. Grimes D, Intrauterine device and upper-genital-tract infection, Lancet, 2000, 356(9234):1013-1019.
23. Burkman RT, 1981, op. cit. (see reference 6); Lee NC et al., 1983, op. cit. (see reference 6); Petitti DB, Reconsidering the IUD, viewpoint, Family Planning Perspectives, 1992, 24(1):33-35; Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):109-122; Burkman RT et al., The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, response to the article, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):123-125; and Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, reply to the dissent offered by Burkman et al., Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):211-213.
24. Burkman RT, 1981, op. cit. (see reference 6); Lee NC et al., 1983, op. cit. (see reference 6); Petitti DB, Reconsidering the IUD, viewpoint, Family Planning Perspectives, 1992, 24(1):33-35; Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):109-122; Burkman RT et al., The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, response to the article, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):123-125; and Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, reply to the dissent offered by Burkman et al., Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):211-213.
25. Burkman RT, 1981, op. cit. (see reference 6); Lee NC et al., 1983, op. cit. (see reference 6); Petitti DB, Reconsidering the IUD, viewpoint, Family Planning Perspectives, 1992, 24(1):33-35; Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):109-122; Burkman RT et al., The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, response to the article, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):123-125; and Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, reply to the dissent offered by Burkman et al., Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):211-213.
26. Burkman RT, 1981, op. cit. (see reference 6); Lee NC et al., 1983, op. cit. (see reference 6); Petitti DB, Reconsidering the IUD, viewpoint, Family Planning Perspectives, 1992, 24(1):33-35; Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):109-122; Burkman RT et al., The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, response to the article, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):123-125; and Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, reply to the dissent offered by Burkman et al., Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):211-213.
27. Burkman RT, 1981, op. cit. (see reference 6); Lee NC et al., 1983, op. cit. (see reference 6); Petitti DB, Reconsidering the IUD, viewpoint, Family Planning Perspectives, 1992, 24(1):33-35; Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):109-122; Burkman RT et al., The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, response to the article, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):123-125; and Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, reply to the dissent offered by Burkman et al., Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):211-213.
28. Burkman RT, 1981, op. cit. (see reference 6); Lee NC et al., 1983, op. cit. (see reference 6); Petitti DB, Reconsidering the IUD, viewpoint, Family Planning Perspectives, 1992, 24(1):33-35; Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):109-122; Burkman RT et al., The intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: the Women's Health Study reanalyzed, response to the article, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):123-125; and Kronmal RA, Whitney CW and Mumford SD, reply to the dissent offered by Burkman et al., Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1991, 44(2):211-213.
29. Vessey MP et al., Pelvic inflammatory disease and the intrauterine device: findings in a large cohort study, British Medical Journal, 1981, 282(6267):855-857; and Buchan H et al., Epidemiology of pelvic inflammatory disease in parous women with special reference to intrauterine device use, British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1990, 97(9):780-788.
30. Vessey MP et al., Pelvic inflammatory disease and the intrauterine device: findings in a large cohort study, British Medical Journal, 1981, 282(6267):855-857; and Buchan H et al., Epidemiology of pelvic inflammatory disease in parous women with special reference to intrauterine device use, British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1990, 97(9):780-788.
31. Daling JR et al., 1985, op. cit. (see reference 7); and Cramer DW et al., 1985, op. cit. (see reference 7).
32. Daling JR et al., 1985, op. cit. (see reference 7); and Cramer DW et al., 1985, op. cit. (see reference 7).
33. Skjeldestad FE, Conception rates post IUD removal, in: Bardin CW and Mishell DR, eds., Proceedings from the Fourth International Conference on IUDs, Newton, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
34. Darney PD, Time to pardon the IUD? editorial, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):608-610; Dardano KL and Burkman RT, The intrauterine contraceptive device: an often-forgotten and maligned method of contraception, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1999, 181(1):1-5; Fortney JA, Feldblum PJ and Raymond EG, Intrauterine devices, the optimal long-term contraceptive method? Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 1999, 44(3):269-274; Cheng D, The intrauterine device: still misunderstood after all these years, Southern Medical Journal, 2000, 93(9):859-864; and Mishell DR, Jr., Intrauterine devices: mechanisms of action, safety, and efficacy, Contraception, 1998, 58(3 Suppl.):45-53.
35. Darney PD, Time to pardon the IUD? editorial, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):608-610; Dardano KL and Burkman RT, The intrauterine contraceptive device: an often-forgotten and maligned method of contraception, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1999, 181(1):1-5; Fortney JA, Feldblum PJ and Raymond EG, Intrauterine devices, the optimal long-term contraceptive method? Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 1999, 44(3):269-274; Cheng D, The intrauterine device: still misunderstood after all these years, Southern Medical Journal, 2000, 93(9):859-864; and Mishell DR, Jr., Intrauterine devices: mechanisms of action, safety, and efficacy, Contraception, 1998, 58(3 Suppl.):45-53.
36. Darney PD, Time to pardon the IUD? editorial, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):608-610; Dardano KL and Burkman RT, The intrauterine contraceptive device: an often-forgotten and maligned method of contraception, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1999, 181(1):1-5; Fortney JA, Feldblum PJ and Raymond EG, Intrauterine devices, the optimal long-term contraceptive method? Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 1999, 44(3):269-274; Cheng D, The intrauterine device: still misunderstood after all these years, Southern Medical Journal, 2000, 93(9):859-864; and Mishell DR, Jr., Intrauterine devices: mechanisms of action, safety, and efficacy, Contraception, 1998, 58(3 Suppl.):45-53.
37. Darney PD, Time to pardon the IUD? editorial, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):608-610; Dardano KL and Burkman RT, The intrauterine contraceptive device: an often-forgotten and maligned method of contraception, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1999, 181(1):1-5; Fortney JA, Feldblum PJ and Raymond EG, Intrauterine devices, the optimal long-term contraceptive method? Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 1999, 44(3):269-274; Cheng D, The intrauterine device: still misunderstood after all these years, Southern Medical Journal, 2000, 93(9):859-864; and Mishell DR, Jr., Intrauterine devices: mechanisms of action, safety, and efficacy, Contraception, 1998, 58(3 Suppl.):45-53.
38. Darney PD, Time to pardon the IUD? editorial, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):608-610; Dardano KL and Burkman RT, The intrauterine contraceptive device: an often-forgotten and maligned method of contraception, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1999, 181(1):1-5; Fortney JA, Feldblum PJ and Raymond EG, Intrauterine devices, the optimal long-term contraceptive method? Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 1999, 44(3):269-274; Cheng D, The intrauterine device: still misunderstood after all these years, Southern Medical Journal, 2000, 93(9):859-864; and Mishell DR, Jr., Intrauterine devices: mechanisms of action, safety, and efficacy, Contraception, 1998, 58(3 Suppl.):45-53.
39. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
40. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
41. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
42. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
43. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
44. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
45. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
46. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
47. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
48. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
49. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
50. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
51. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
52. World Health Organization (WHO) Scientific Group on the Mechanism of Action, Safety and Efficacy of Intrauterine Devices, Technical Report Series, 1987, No. 753; Wilcox AJ et al., Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay, Fertility and Sterility, 1987, 47(2):265-269; Alvarez F et al., New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women, Fertility and Sterility, 1988, 49(5):768-773; Wilson JC, A prospective New Zealand study of fertility after removal of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices for conception and because of complications: a four-year study, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1989, 160(2):391-396; Sivin I et al., Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the copper T380 Ag IUDs, Contraception, 1991, 44(5):473-480; Farley TM et al., Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective, Lancet, 1992, 339(8796):785-788; Andersson K, Odlind V and Rybo G, Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial, Contraception, 1994, 49(1):56-72; UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Long-term reversible contraception: twelve years of experience with the TCu380A and TCu220C, Contraception, 1997, 56(6): 341-352; Sinei SK et al., Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women, Lancet, 1998, 351(9111):1238-1241; Walsh T et al., Randomised controlled trial of prophylactic antibiotics before insertion of intrauterine devices, Lancet, 1998, 351(9108):1005-1008; Hubacher D et al., Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women, New England Journal of Medicine, 2001, 345(8):561-567; Kadanali S et al., Evaluation of active and passive transport mechanisms in genital tracts of IUD-bearing women with radionuclide hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, Contraception, 2001, 63(1):41-45; Meirik O, Farley TM and Sivin I, Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, intrauterine device, and sterilization, Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2001, 97(4):539-547; and Shelton JD, Risk of clinical pelvic inflammatory disease attributable to an intrauterine device, Lancet, 2001, 357(9254):443.
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