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1
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0004165775
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Cambridge
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For a history of the project, see R. Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie 1775-1800, Cambridge, 1979. I have chosen to focus on the French Encyclopédie and have not taken its British predecessor - Chambers's Cyclopaedia - into consideration as this paper is about chemistry and philosophy in France.
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(1979)
The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie 1775-1800
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Darnton, R.1
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2
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0042639170
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Paris
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D. Diderot and J. d'Alembert, Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences des arts et des métiers par une société de gens de lettres, Volume I, Paris, 1751, 400: 'ANALYSE, (Ordre encyclop. Entend. Raison. Philosoph, ou sciencs, science de la nature, mathématiques pures, arithmétique littérale, ou algebre, analyse.) est proprement la méthode de résoudre les problèmes mathématiques, en les réduisant à des équations. Voyez PROBLÈME & EQUATION.'
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(1751)
Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences des Arts et des Métiers par une Société de Gens de Lettres
, vol.1
, pp. 400
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Diderot, D.1
D'Alembert, J.2
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5
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0042138228
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Paris
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E. de Condillac, Œuvres complètes tome 15: La Logique, Paris, 1822, 338-9: En effet, que je veuille connaître une machine, je la décomposerai pour en étudier séparément chaque partie. Quand j'aura, de chacune une idée exacte, et que je pourrai les remettre dans le même ordre où elles étaient, alors je concevra, parfaitement cette machine parce que je l'aurai décomposée et recomposée. Qu'est-ce donc que concevoir cette machine? C'est avoir une pensée qui est composée d'autant d'idées qu'il y a de parties dans cette machine même, d'idées qui les représentent chacune exactement, et qui sont disposées dans le même ordre.
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(1822)
Œuvres Complètes Tome 15: La Logique
, vol.15
, pp. 338-339
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De Condillac, E.1
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6
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0042138226
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Diderot and d'Alembert, op. cit. (2), 403: une espece d'index ou table des principaux chefs ou articles d'un discours continu, disposés dans leur ordre naturel & dans la liaison & la dépendance qu'ont entr'elles les matieres. Les analyses contiennent plus de science que les tables alphabétiques ...
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Œuvres Complètes Tome
, Issue.2
, pp. 403
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Diderot1
D'Alembert2
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7
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0042639143
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Baltimore
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Paradoxically, the placement of this definition itself illustrates a key problem with dictionaries and encyclopaedias; within the article on 'analysis' the order is that of an analysis, while the word analysis itself is placed in the book according to the vagaries of alphabetical order. Nevertheless, the Encyclopédie provides the means for reconstructing the analytical order through a system of cross-references, which allow a reading of the work that cuts across the alphabetization (one can think of these dictionaries and encyclopaedias as early non-electronic versions of hypertexts, with a constant play of reference between the words; see W. Anderson, Between the Library and the Laboratory, Baltimore, 1984).
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(1984)
Between the Library and the Laboratory
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Anderson, W.1
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8
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0041637194
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Diderot and d'Alembert, op. cit. (2), 401: 'ANALYSE, est aussi en usage dans la Chimie pour dissoudre un corps composé, ou en diviser les différens principes. Voyez PRINCIPE DE COMPOSITION, CORPS, &c.'
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Between the Library and the Laboratory
, Issue.2
, pp. 401
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Diderot1
D'Alembert2
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10
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0042138201
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Diderot and d'Alembert, op. cit. (2), 401: 'Analyser des corps ou les résoudre en leurs parties composantes, est le principal objet de l'art chimique. Voyez CHIMIE. L'analyse des corps est principalement effectuée par le moyen du feu. Voyez FEU.'
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Traité de Chimie
, Issue.2
, pp. 401
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Diderot1
D'Alembert2
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11
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0000917208
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Analysis by fire and solvent extractions: The metamorphosis of a tradition
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For a discussion of Boulduc's analysis project at the Paris Academy of Sciences, see F. L. Holmes, 'Analysis by fire and solvent extractions: the metamorphosis of a tradition', Isis (1971), 62, 129-48.
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(1971)
Isis
, vol.62
, pp. 129-148
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Holmes, F.L.1
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13
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0141971699
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Paris
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P. Macquer, 'Analyse par le feu' and 'analyse par les dissolvans ou par les menstrues', in idem, Dictionnaire de chimie contenant la théorie et la pratique de cette science son application à la physique, à l'histoire naturelle à la médecine, et aux arts dépendans de la chimie, Paris, 1766, 139.
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(1766)
Dictionnaire de Chimie Contenant la Théorie et la Pratique de Cette Science son Application à la Physique, à l'Histoire Naturelle à la Médecine, et aux Arts Dépendans de la Chimie
, pp. 139
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Macquer, P.1
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14
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0043140105
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F. L. Holmes gives a history of the development of solvent extraction from the mid-seventeenth to the mid-eighteenth centuries in 'Chemists in the plant kingdom' in idem, Eighteenth-Century Chemistry as an Investigative Enterprise, Berkeley, 1989, 61-83.
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Chemists in the Plant Kingdom
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Holmes, F.L.1
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15
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0003599199
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Berkeley
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F. L. Holmes gives a history of the development of solvent extraction from the mid-seventeenth to the mid-eighteenth centuries in 'Chemists in the plant kingdom' in idem, Eighteenth-Century Chemistry as an Investigative Enterprise, Berkeley, 1989, 61-83.
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(1989)
Eighteenth-century Chemistry As An Investigative Enterprise
, pp. 61-83
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Holmes, F.L.1
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17
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0011344014
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Paris
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C. Glaser, Traité de la Chymie Paris, 1674, 3: 'un art scientifique, par le quel on apprend à dissoudre les corps pour en tirer les diverses substances dont ils sont composez, & à les reünir & rassembles pour en faire des corps exaltez'.
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(1674)
Traité de la Chymie
, pp. 3
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Glaser, C.1
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18
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79958077035
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Paris
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M. Charas, Pharmacopée royale galénique et chimique, Paris, 1676, 2: 'un Art qui nous enseigne à résoudre les corps mixtes, & par mesme moyen à diviser & à connaître les parties dont ils sont composez'.
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(1676)
Pharmacopée Royale Galénique et Chimique
, pp. 2
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Charas, M.1
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19
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0003504464
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(ed. M. Baron), Paris
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N. Lemery, Cours de chymie ... (ed. M. Baron), Paris, 1756, 2: 'un Art qui enseigne à séparer les différentes substances qui se rencontrent dans un mixte'.
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(1756)
Cours de Chymie ..
, pp. 2
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Lemery, N.1
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20
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0032014013
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The chemical revolution and pharmacy: A disciplinary perspective
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J. Simon, 'The chemical revolution and pharmacy: a disciplinary perspective', Ambix (1998), 45, 1-13.
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(1998)
Ambix
, vol.45
, pp. 1-13
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Simon, J.1
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21
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0042138202
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M. Charas, op. cit. (16), 598: J'ay enfin reservé les mineraux pour le sujet du troisiéme, parce qu'estant presque tous comme cachez dans le sein de la terre, ils ne nous sont pas si familiers, & qu'ils demandent aussi un travail & un feu plus grand & plus long, & beaucoup plus d'artifice que les vegetaux, ni les animaux.
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Ambix
, Issue.16
, pp. 598
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Charas, M.1
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22
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0003274743
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At the time of writing his Elements of Chemistry (1789), Lavoisier seemed to think that nitrogen was present in all animal matter, but was ambivalent about whether or not it was to be found in vegetable matter.
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(1789)
Elements of Chemistry
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23
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0041637176
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Madison, WI, 261 ff
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For details of Lavoisier's elementary analysis of vegetable and animal substance, see F. L. Holmes, Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life: An Exploration of Scientific Creativity, Madison, WI, 1985, in particular Part III, 261 ff.
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(1985)
Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life: An Exploration of Scientific Creativity
, Issue.3 PART
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Holmes, F.L.1
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24
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0043140108
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note
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The analysis and synthesis of water was often a focus for sceptical attacks on Lavoisier's new system of chemistry and, furthermore, in France pharmacists seemed particularly opposed to the oxygenic theory. One such opponent was Antoine Baumé, who never accepted Lavoisier's theory.
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26
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0043140106
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note
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The mineral kingdom was familiar to Lavoisier in at least two senses. First, his scientific mentor Guettard initiated him into practical chemistry through mineralogy and, second, a large number of mineral substances had already ceded to elementary analysis with their constitutive elements as well as the gravimetric proportions of these elements being known.
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27
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0042639167
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note
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Indeed, it is interesting to note that although his analytical approach contributed significantly to the establishment of the nineteenth-century dichotomy between organic (increasingly understood as carbon) chemistry and inorganic chemistry, Lavoisier himself was still bound by the traditional division of nature into the three kingdoms. This can be seen clearly in the structure of his Elements of Chemistry, which is consistently presented in the order mineral, vegetable, animal, as well as his frequent reference to these kingdoms.
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28
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0042639140
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Organic analysis in comparative perspective: Liebig, Dumas, and Berzelius, 1811-1837
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(ed. F. L. Holmes and T. H. Levere), Boston, MA
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For Liebig's introduction of the Kaliapparat, see A. Rocke, 'Organic analysis in comparative perspective: Liebig, Dumas, and Berzelius, 1811-1837', in Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry (ed. F. L. Holmes and T. H. Levere), Boston, MA, 2000; and, more recently, A. Rocke, Nationalizing Science, Boston, MA, 2001.
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(2000)
Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry
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Rocke, A.1
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29
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0007231507
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Boston, MA
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For Liebig's introduction of the Kaliapparat, see A. Rocke, 'Organic analysis in comparative perspective: Liebig, Dumas, and Berzelius, 1811-1837', in Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry (ed. F. L. Holmes and T. H. Levere), Boston, MA, 2000; and, more recently, A. Rocke, Nationalizing Science, Boston, MA, 2001.
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(2001)
Nationalizing Science
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Rocke, A.1
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30
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0039581965
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(tr. G. Svehla), Oxford
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This, for example, is the history of organic analysis we find in F. Szabadváry, History of Analytical Chemistry (tr. G. Svehla), Oxford, 1962. A more refined history is presented in R. Löw, Pflanzenchemie zwischen Lavoisier und Liebig, München, 1977, although this work concerns the far wider field of plant chemistry.
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(1962)
History of Analytical Chemistry
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Szabadváry, F.1
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31
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0007285410
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München
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This, for example, is the history of organic analysis we find in F. Szabadváry, History of Analytical Chemistry (tr. G. Svehla), Oxford, 1962. A more refined history is presented in R. Löw, Pflanzenchemie zwischen Lavoisier und Liebig, München, 1977, although this work concerns the far wider field of plant chemistry.
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(1977)
Pflanzenchemie Zwischen Lavoisier und Liebig
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Löw, R.1
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35
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0042138203
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note
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This is not counting the counterfeit editions, which obliged the publisher to take the measure of signing every authentic copy.
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36
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0018408360
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Cures without care: Chemical physicians and mineral waters in seventeenth-century English medicine
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Another very important, medically related use of analysis was the analysis of the content of mineral waters, which accounts for a large number of articles in eighteenth-century chemistry journals. This analytical work has been linked to the growing prestige of chemistry within the medical profession. See N. G. Coley, 'Cures without care: chemical physicians and mineral waters in seventeenth-century English medicine', Medical History (1979), 23, 191-214; and idem, 'Physicians and the chemical analysis of mineral waters in eighteenth-century England', Medical History (1982), 26, 123-44.
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(1979)
Medical History
, vol.23
, pp. 191-214
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Coley, N.G.1
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37
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0019899009
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Physicians and the chemical analysis of mineral waters in eighteenth-century England
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Another very important, medically related use of analysis was the analysis of the content of mineral waters, which accounts for a large number of articles in eighteenth-century chemistry journals. This analytical work has been linked to the growing prestige of chemistry within the medical profession. See N. G. Coley, 'Cures without care: chemical physicians and mineral waters in seventeenth-century English medicine', Medical History (1979), 23, 191-214; and idem, 'Physicians and the chemical analysis of mineral waters in eighteenth-century England', Medical History (1982), 26, 123-44.
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(1982)
Medical History
, vol.26
, pp. 123-144
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Coley, N.G.1
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38
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0041637188
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Baumé, op. cit. (29), 87: 'Ces substances sont très composées; elles contiennent en même-tems des sels, des huiles, des extraits ou savons naturels, des gommes, des ré sines, &c.'
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Medical History
, Issue.29
, pp. 87
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Baumé1
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39
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0042138219
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note
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Paradoxically, as we shall see below, we find this classificatory scheme drawn from Guillaume-François Rouelle taken up again by Lavoisier.
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40
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0042138218
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Baumé, op. cit. (29), 92: 'Ils sont mêlés de fécules ou fecés, ils ont tous besoin d'être dépurés ou clarifiés pour qu'on en puisse faire usage dans la Médecine, & il faut encore que la méthode que l'on emploie ne puisse rien altérer de leurs propriétés.'
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Medical History
, Issue.29
, pp. 92
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Baumé1
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41
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0042138221
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Leçons élémentaires d'histoire naturelle et de chimie
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Leçons élémentaires d'histoire naturelle et de chimie.
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42
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0043140121
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Éléments d'histoire naturelle et de chimie. The different editions of this book covered the period of Fourcroy's conversion to Lavoisier's theory.
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Éléments d'histoire naturelle et de chimie. The different editions of this book covered the period of Fourcroy's conversion to Lavoisier's theory.
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43
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0043140119
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J.-B. Bucquet, op. cit. (28), pp. vi-vii. Quoique les substances qu'on retire des plantes par l'analyse menstruelle passent pour leurs principes, elles sont cependant elles-mêmes fort composées, & méritent d'être examinées séparément; ce qu'on fait en les soumettant à l'action du feu nu, & cet agent qui produit sur les corps de grandes altérations, ne laisse pas de présenter plusieurs principes à nu, en sorte que cette analyse qui est fort infidèle lorsqu'on l'emploie seule, est très-propre à éclaircir l'analyse menstruelle, qui de son côté jette un jour plus grand sur l'analyse à feu nu.
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Medical History
, Issue.28
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Bucquet, J.-B.1
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44
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0042138217
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Bucquet was clearly aware of the existence of these chemically distinct gases, writing a treatise on their medical uses in 1778, op. cit. (30).
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(1778)
Medical History
, Issue.30
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Bucquet1
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46
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0003640191
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Paris
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A.-L. Lavoisier, Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes, Paris, 1789, pp. v-vi: [Condillac] établit [dans sa Logique] que nous ne pensons qu'avec le secours des mots; que les langues sont de véritables méthodes analytiques; que l'algèbre la plus simple, la plus exacte & la mieux adaptée à son objet de toutes les manières de s'enoncer, est à-la-fois une langue & une méthode analytique; enfin que l'art de raisonner se réduit à une langue bien faite.
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(1789)
Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, Présenté dans un Ordre Nouveau et d'Après les Découvertes Modernes
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Lavoisier, A.-L.1
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47
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4244050487
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Guédon points out that Rouelle was very interested by the question of composition and, like Bucquet, envisioned analysis by fire and solvent analysis as providing the solutions to these questions. J.-C. Guédon, 'Rouelle and encyclopedic chemistry', in idem, ' The still life of a transition: chemistry in the Encyclopédie', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1974, 347-72.
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Rouelle and Encyclopedic Chemistry
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Guédon, J.-C.1
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48
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4243619575
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Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin
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Guédon points out that Rouelle was very interested by the question of composition and, like Bucquet, envisioned analysis by fire and solvent analysis as providing the solutions to these questions. J.-C. Guédon, 'Rouelle and encyclopedic chemistry', in idem, ' The still life of a transition: chemistry in the Encyclopédie', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1974, 347-72.
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(1974)
The Still Life of a Transition: Chemistry in the Encyclopédie
, pp. 347-372
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Guédon, J.-C.1
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49
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0003274743
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(tr. R. Kerr), Edinburgh
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A.-L. Lavoisier, Elements of Chemistry (tr. R. Kerr), Edinburgh, 1790, 117-18. I have used this translation here and in the following citations where it faithfully renders the original.
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(1790)
Elements of Chemistry
, pp. 117-118
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Lavoisier, A.-L.1
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51
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0043140103
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note
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According to the Encyclopédie, the term 'vulgar algebra' describes the use of letters to stand for unknowns in equations, with the aim of determining values for the unknowns. In this case the letters are clearly commensurable, as the solution of the equation allows them to be replaced by numbers. Lavoisier is using this kind of equation, but the letters no longer stand for unknown numerical values but for the elements of his system.
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52
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0042138220
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note
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I would like to thank one of the referees for suggesting this particular illustration of the point.
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53
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0000025157
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The death of the sensuous chemist: The "new" chemistry and the transformation of sensuous technology
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For a similar argument concerning the sensuality of chemical practices prior to the eighteenth century see L. Roberts, 'The death of the sensuous chemist: the "new" chemistry and the transformation of sensuous technology', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1995), 26, 503-29.
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(1995)
Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science
, vol.26
, pp. 503-529
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Roberts, L.1
|