Using the student body: College and university students as research subjects in the United States during the twentieth century

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 57, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 3-38

  Prescott, Heather Munro ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOMETRY; ARTICLE; EXERCISE; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MALE; MEDICAL ETHICS; RACE; REFERENCE VALUE; STUDENT; UNITED STATES;

ANTHROPOMETRY; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; ETHICS, MEDICAL; EXERCISE; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION; HUMANS; MALE; REFERENCE VALUES; STUDENTS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0036359091     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/57.1.3     Document Type: Article

References (180)

1. Paulette V. Walker, "University of Rochester suspends study after accidental death," Chronicle, of Higher Education, 12 April 1996, p. A37;
2. Lisa Guernsey, "University of Rochester sued for $100 million in student's death," Chronicle, of Higher Education, 10 May 1996, p. A42 ;
3. "Overdose lawsuit settled," Newday, 3 October 1996, p. A28.
4. Two notable exceptions are Susan Lederer, Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995)
5. and Jonathan D. Moreno, "Convenient and captive populations," in Jeffrey P. Kahn, Anna C. Mastroianni, and Jeremy Sugarman, eds., Beyond Consent: Seeking Justice in Research (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 111-30.
6. Lederer, (n. 2) Subjected to Science, pp. 1-2.
7. Ibid., p. 19.
8. Ibid., pp. 30, 54-55.
9. For more on the role of human experimentation in medical education, see Edward C. Atwater, "'Squeezing mother nature': Experimental physiology in the United States before 1870," Bull. Hist. Med., 1958, 52, 313-35.
10. For more on the history of self-experimentation, see Lawrence K. Altman, Who Goes First? The Story of Self-Experimentation in Medicine (New York: Random House, 1987).
11. Ruth Boynton, "Historical development of college health services," Student Medicine, 1962, 10, 294-305;
12. Ron Rosenbaum, "The Great Ivy League nude posture photo scandal," New York Times Magazine, 15 January 1993, pp. 26-31, 40, 46, 55-56.
13. For more on the history of tuberculosis prevention programs in colleges and universities, see Heather Munro Prescott, "The white plague goes to college: Tuberculosis prevention programs in colleges and universities, 1920-1960," Bull. Hist. Med., 2000, 74, 735-72.
14. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995);
15. Richard Hofstader, Social Darwinism in American Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955).
16. Larry Owens, "Pure and sound government: Laboratories, playing fields, and gymnasia in the nineteenth-century search for order," Isis, 1985, 76, 182-194, p. 186.
17. David Yosifon and Peter N. Stearns, "The rise and fall of American posture," Am Hist. Rev., 1998, 103, 1057-95, pp. 1059, 1061, 1067.
18. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 57;
19. Jacqueline Urla and Alan C. Swedlund, "The anthropometry of Barbie: Unsettling ideals of the feminine body in popular culture," in Jennifer Terry and Jacqueline Urla, eds., Deviant Bodies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), pp. 288-89.
20. Warren B. Forsythe, Health Service in American Colleges and Universities (University of Michigan, 1926), pp. 12-14.
21. John Sundwall, "The teaching of college hygiene," Am. J. Public Health, 1927, 17, 48-57, p. 49.
22. R. Boynton to O. F. Hedley, Heart Disease Investigations, U.S. Public Health Service, 29 November 1937, American Student Health Association Records, SC 146, Stanford University Archives, Stanford, California (hereafter referred to as ASHA Records), Box 7, Folder 2.
23. H. S. Diehl, "Research opportunities in student health work," Proc. Annu. Meet. Am. Stud. Health Assoc., 1927, 8, 68-82, pp. 69-70.
24. R. W. Bradshaw, "Research in student health," Am. J. Public Health 1929, 19, 1229-34, p. 1233.
25. Ibid., p. 1230.
26. Lederer, (n. 2) Subjected to Science, p. 119.
27. Ibid., pp. 119-20.
28. For examples of articles describing this phenomenon, see "College youth not as painted: No sacrifice too great for cause of learning," Los Angeles Times 10 January 1927, Section II, p. 1;
29. "Many students offer blood," San Francisco Chronicle 9 March 1933, p. 10. I am grateful to Susan Lederer for sharing these clippings with me.
30. Margaret Beattie and Eugenia Herron, "Determining carriers of B. diphtheriae," Am. J. Public Health, 1926, 16, 710-13;
31. H. S. Diehl, "Results of the Schick test at the University of Minnesota," Minn. Med., 1926, 9, 518;
32. Frank L. Kelly, "Results of Schick tests in California," Public Health Rep., 4 December 1925, 40, 2645-63;
33. H. D. Lees, "The Dick test, with active and passive immunization for scarlet fever," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1927, 88, 1133-35;
34. Robert T. Legge, "Status of vaccination in American colleges," Public Health Rep., 22 May 1925, 40, 1037-41;
35. W. P. Shepard and H. S. Diehl, "Studies of the epidemiology of scarlet fever in a school outbreak," J. Infect. Dis., 1923, 33, 75;
36. Stanley Thomas and R. C. Bull, "The pressure vaccination technic," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1927, 88, 1879-81;
37. Stanley Thomas, "Smallpox vaccination as carried out at Lehigh University," Public Health Rep., 8 January 1926, 41, 37-43;
38. B. White, "Group reactions to the Schick test," Boston Med. Surg. J., 1923, 189, 1026.
39. Esmond R. Long and Florence Seibert, "The incidence of tuberculosis infection in American college students," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1937, 108, 1761-765;
40. E. R. Long, "Tuberculosis in college students, with special reference to tuberculin testing," J. Lancet, 1935, 55, 201-3;
41. J. Arthur Meyers, "Types of tuberculosis lesions found in the chests of students of nursing and medicine," Am. Rev. Tuberc., 1933, 28, 93-117.
42. For more on general infection rates at this time, see Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992)
43. and Georgina D. Feldberg, Disease and Class: Tuberculosis and the Shaping of North American Society (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995).
44. Prescott, (n. 7).
45. Warren P. Lombard, "Some of the influences which affect the power of voluntary muscular contraction," J. Physiol. (London), 1892, 13, 1-58;
46. W. H. R. Rivers, The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue (London: E. Arnold, 1908).
47. M. V. O'Shea, Tobacco and Mental Efficiency (New York: Macmillan, 1923), p. xvi.
48. Ibid.;
49. David June Carver, "The immediate psychological effects of tobacco smoking," Comp. Psychol., 1922, 2, 279-302;
50. Robert Lee Bates, "The effects of cigar and cigarette smoking on certain psychological and physiological functions," Comp. Psychol., 1922, 2, 431-503;
51. Rosslyn Earp, "Tobacco and scholarship," Sci. Mon., 1928, 26, 335-36;
52. E. L. Clarke, "Effect of smoking on Clark College students," Clark College Record 1909, 4, 3191-98;
53. G. L. Meylan, "The effect of smoking on college students," Pop. Sci. Monthly, 1910, 77, 169-78;
54. Clarke L. Hull, "The influence of tobacco smoking on mental and motor efficiency," Psychological Monographs, 1924, 33.
55. For more on early studies of smoking, see Allan Brandt, "The cigarette, risk, and American culture," Daedalus, 1990, 119, 155-73.
56. L. I. Dublin, "Longevity of college athletes," Harper's Monthly Magazine, July 1928, 229-38;
57. James C. Greenway, Ira V. Hiscock, et. al., "Mortality among Yale men," Yale Alumni Weekly, 11 June 1926, 1086-88, p. 1087.
58. See also W. G. Anderson, "Further studies in the longevity of Yale athletes," Medical Times, 1916, 44, 75;
59. H. Brooks, "The effects of college athletics on after life," The American Practitioner and News, 1912, 46, 573-77;
60. Warren E. Forsythe, "Health and athletics," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1917, 68, 995;
61. W. H. Geer, "Life expectancy of college athletes," Mind and Body, 1924, 30, 453-59;
62. C. E. Hammett, "How basketball affects college men," Am. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1928, 23, 309-16;
63. Roger I. Lee, "The effect of athletics on the heart: The athletic heart," Am. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1917, 22, 166-69;
64. W. S. Middleton, "The effect of athletic training on the heart," Am. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1915, 20, 148-63;
65. A. E. Parker, "Training for athletics and health," Hygeia, 1933, 11, 17-20, 144-47, 242-46, 343-46.
66. Diehl, (n. 14), p. 79.
67. Ibid, p. 76.
68. Urla and Swedlund, (n. 10), p. 289.
69. Harry L. Shapiro, "A portrait of the American people," Natural History, June 1945, 248-55.
70. Gordon T. Bowles, New Types of Old Americans at Harvard and at Eastern Women's Colleges (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932);
71. Clelia Duel Mosher, "Concerning the size of women: Preliminary note with special reference to height," Calif. State J. Med., 1921, 19, 53-54;
72. Faith Fairfield Gordon, "Physical measurements of one thousand Smith students," Am. J. Public Health, 1930, 20, 963-68.
73. Earnest Albert Hooton, "We Are Getting Taller," Good Housekeeping, 1946, 122, 141-42.
74. Bowles, (n. 30) New Types, pp. 141-42.
75. W. C. Alvarez, "Blood pressure in 15,000 university freshmen," Arch. Intern. Med., 1923, 32, 17-30;
76. W. C. Alvarez, R. L. McCalla, and A. Zimmerman. "Hypertension and constipation," Arch. Intern. Med., 1926, 38, 158-66;
77. H. S. Diehl and K. H. Sutherland, "Systolic blood pressures in young men, including a special study of those with hypertension," Arch. Intern. Med., 1925, 36, 151-73;
78. Roger I. Lee, "Blood pressure determinations, urinary findings and differential blood counts in a group of 662 young male adults," Boston Med. Surg. J., 1915, 173, 541-43;
79. D. C. Parmenter, "Occurrence and significance of systolic murmurs in healthy individuals." J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1920, 88, 1680;
80. W. P. Shepard and J. A. Myers, "The respiratory organs in health and in disease," Arch. Intern. Med., 1925, 35, 337-46.
81. Thomas Storey, "Periodic health examinations as a means of research," Proc. Annu. Meet. Am. Stud. Health Assoc., 1927, 8, 51-59, p. 53.
82. Roderick D. Buchanan, "The development of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory," J. Hist. Behav. Sci., 1994, 30, 148-61.
83. Robert A. Brotemarkle, "College student personnel work," in Robert A. Brotemarkle, ed., Clinical Psychology: Studies in Honor of Lightner Witmer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1931), pp. 103-4.
84. David O. Levine, The American College and the Culture of Aspiration, 1915-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 136.
85. Nicolas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999).
86. Brotemarkle, (n. 36), pp. 102-15.
87. For an overview of mental hygiene and college students, see Sol Cohen, "The mental hygiene movement and the development of personality: Changing conceptions of the American college and university, 1920-1940," History of Higher Education Annual, 1982, 2, 65-101;
88. Kathleen W. Jones, "Mental hygiene goes to college," Paper presented at the History of Childhood Conference, Washington, D.C., 4-6 August 2000.
89. Arlie V. Bock, "A proposed study of unhappiness and maladjustment, using young men in Harvard University as a laboratory," typescript dated September, 1937, Grant Foundation Papers, Special Collections, Milbank Memorial Library, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, (hereafter referred to as Grant Foundation Papers), Box 81.
90. Quoted in Emily Davis Cahan, The William T. Grant Foundation: The First Fifty Years, 1936-1986 (New York: William T. Grant Foundation, 1986), p. 10.
91. Quoted in Annual Report, Grant Foundation, New York, 1992, pp. 8-9.
92. Eva Milofsky, "The Grant study: A panoramic view after half a century," unpublished typescript, Grant Foundation Papers, Box 77.
93. Earnest Hooton, "Young Man, You Are Normal": Findings from a Study of Students (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1945), p. 8.
94. Selection criteria and information on the backgrounds of the participants are described in Clark Wright Heath, What People Are: A Study of Normal Young Men (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1945), pp. 110-14, pp. 110-11;
95. John P. Monks, College Men at War (Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1957), pp. 4-5.
96. Hooton, (n. 44) "Young Man", p. III;
97. Monks, (n. 45) College Men, pp. 4-5;
98. Arlie Bock to Adele Morrison, 24 February 1939, Grant Foundation Papers, Box 80.
99. Heath, (n. 45) What People Are, pp. 12-13.
100. William Sheldon, Varieties of Human Physique: An Introduction to Constitutional Psychology (New York: Harper arid Brothers, 1940);
101. Sheldon, Varieties of Human Temperament: A Psychology of Constitutional Differences (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1942).
102. Ernst Kretschmer, Physique and Character (New York: Harcourt Brace & Co., 1925).
103. William Sheldon, Varieties of Delinquent Youth: An Introduction to Constitutional Psychiatry (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949).
104. For more information on Sheldon's impact on medicine at this time, see Sarah W. Tracy, "George Draper and American constitutional medicine, 1916-1946: Reinventing the sick man," Bull. Hist. Med., 1992, 66, 53-89;
105. Tracy, "An evolving science of man: The transformation and demise of American constitutional medicine, 1920-1950," in Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz, eds., Greater than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 161-88.
106. Hooton, (n. 44) "Young Man," pp. 95-96.
107. Arlie Bock, "A short method for selecting combat officers," typescript, 1942, pp. 3-5, Grant Foundation Papers, Box 80.
108. William L. Woods, "Preliminary study of Grant Co. managers," typescript, September 1943, Grant Foundation Papers, Box 87.
109. Monks, (n. 45) College Men, pp. 181-83.
110. For more on psychiatry during World War II, see Gerald Grob, The Mad Among, Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally III (New York: The Free Press, 1994), pp. 191-221.
111. See Jennifer Terry, "Lesbians under the medical gaze: Scientists search for remarkable differences," J. Sex Res., 1990, 27, 317-39;
112. Allan Bérubé, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: The Free Press, 1990).
113. William L. Woods, Arlie Bock, et. al. "Short interview method of selection of Army officers," 14 April 1942, Earnest A. Hooton Papers, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, hereafter referred to as Hooton papers.
114. Monks, (n. 45) College Men, p. 181;
115. Hooton, (n. 44) "Young Man," pp. 82-83.
116. See Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992);
117. William B. Provine, "Geneticists and race," Am. Zool., 1986, 26, 857-87;
118. Franz Samuelson, "From 'race psychology' to 'studies in prejudice': Some observations on the thematic reversal in social psychology," J. Hist. Behav. Sci., 1978, 14, 265-78;
119. Richard Weiss, "Ethnicity and reform: Minorities and ambiance of the Depression years," J. Am. Hist., 1979, 66, 566-85.
120. Ernest Hooton, "Plain statement about race," J. Am. Assoc. University Women, June 1936, p. 4;
121. Hooton, "Morons into what?" Woman's Home Companion 1943, 70, 4.
122. See also Hooton, "Why the Jew grows stronger," Colliers 6 May 1939, pp. 12-13, 71-72.
123. Milofsky, (n. 43) pp. 15-16;
124. Earl D. Bond and Rachel Dunaway Cox, "A proposal to the Grant Foundation for a study of the normal personality, May 1, 1958," Grant Foundation Papers, Box 9, Applications Folder.
125. Body Build in Relation to Military Function in a Sample of the United States Army. Research arid Development (contract W44-109-qm-1078) Office of the Quartermaster General, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University in Hooton papers.
126. George E. Vaillant, "The 'normal boy' in later life: How adaptation fosters growth," Harvard Magazine, Nov.-Dec. 1977, p. 46;
127. see also Daniel Coleman, "Men at 65: New findings on well-being," New York Times, 16 January 1990, pp. C1, 12.
128. George E. Vaillant, Adaptation to Life (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1977), pp. 351-59, pp. 352, 353, 358-59.
129. William Sheldon, Atlas of Men: A Guide for Somatotyping the Adult Male at All Ages (New York: Gramercy Publishing Co., 1954).
130. Gertrude M. Baker to Barbara Honeyman, II October 1949, William Herbert Sheldon Papers, National Anthropological Archives, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC (hereafter refereed to as Sheldon Papers), Box 10.
131. Raymond B. Allen to Mrs. Bertha Mayer 16 September 1950, Sheldon Papers, Box 10.
132. Adelaide Bullen and Harriet L. Hardy, "Analysis of body build photographs of 175 college women," Am. J Phys. Anthropol., 1946, 4, 37-68, pp. 38, 59.
133. Lederer, (n. 2) Subjected to Science, p. 140.
134. Ibid., p. 140.
135. David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside (New York: Basic Books, 1991), pp. 68-69.
136. Mary G. M. Boyer, "Therapeutic trial of gamma globulin in infectious mononucleosis," Student Medicine, 1960, 8, 264-67;
137. Curtis Prout and Willard Dalrymple, "A double-blind study of eighty-two cases of infectious mononucleosis treated with corticosteroids," J. Am. Coll. Health Assoc., 1966, 15, 62-66.
138. Ralph S. Paffenbarger, Jr., Philip A. Wolf, Joel Notkin, and Melvyn C. Thorne, "Chronic disease in former college students I: Early precursors of fatal coronary heart disease," Am. J. Epidemiol., 1966, 83, 314-27, pp. 314-15;
139. Ralph S. Paffenbarger, Jr., Joel Notkin, et. al., "Chronic disease in former college students II: Methods of study and observations on mortality from coronary heart disease," Am. J. Public Health, 1966, 56, 962-71;
140. Ralph S. Paffenbarger, "Chronic disease in former college students VI: Implications for college health programs," J. Am. Coll. Health Assoc., 1967, 16, 51-55;
141. Melvin C. Thorne, Alvin L. Wing, and Ralph S. Paffenbarger, Jr., "Chronic disease in former college students VII: Early precursors of nonfatal coronary heart disease," Am. J. Epidemiol., 1968, 87, 520-29.
142. The difficulty in locating sources is described in The Human Radiation Experiments: Final Report of the President's Advisory Committee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. xxv-xxvi.
143. Marvin Goldman Oral History, Department of Energy Human Radiation Experiments website, http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/histories/0468/0468toc. html. Accessed July 2001.
144. G. V. Leroy, J. H. Rust, and R. J. Hasterlik, "The consequences of ingestion by man of real and simulated fallout," Health Phys., 1966, 12, 449-73.
145. Nello Pace Oral History, DOE Human Radiation Experiments website, http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/histories/0476/0476toc.html. Accessed July 2001.
146. Everett Iris Evans, et. al., "Flash burn studies on human volunteers," Surgery, 1955, 37, 280-97. I extend thanks to Susan Lederer for sending me information on this study.
147. J. Kenneth Benson and James Otis Smith, "The Harvard drug controversy: A case study of subject manipulation and social structure," in Gideon Sjoberg, ed., Ethics, Politics, and Social Research (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc., 1967), pp. 115-40;
148. Timothy Leary, Flashbacks: A Personal and Cultural History of an Era: An Autobiography (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1990).
149. The Human Radiation Experiments, (n. 73), pp. 106-7.
150. John Marks, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate (New York: Dell, 1979); available at www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/lsd/marks.htm; accessed July 2001.
151. Ibid., chpt. 8.
152. Louis Lasagna, interview with Jon M. Harkness and Suzanne White-Junod (ACHRE), transcript of audio recording, 13 December 1994, quoted in The Human Radiation Experiments, (n. 73), p. 79.
153. Louis Lasagna and John M. von Felsinger, "The volunteer subject in research," Science 1954, 120, 359-61.
154. See also Harold Escover, Sidney Malitz, and Bernard Wilkens, "Clinical profiles of paid normal subjects volunteering for hallucinogen drug studies," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1961, 117, 910-15.
155. Henry K. Beecher, Research and the Individual (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), p. 77.
156. See also Louis Lasagna, "Special subjects in human experimentation," Daedalus, 1969, 98, 449-62.
157. For more on Beecher's work and its significance, see Rothman, (n. 69) Strangers, pp. 70-84.
158. Dana L. Farnsworth, "Harvard University Health Services Rules Governing the Participation of Healthy Human Beings as Subjects in Research," 1963;
159. Robert H. Ebert, "Harvard Medical School Rules Governing the Participation of Medical Students as Experimental Subjects," 1965. Henry K. Beecher Papers, Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (hereafter referred to as Beecher Papers), Box 6, Folder 72.
160. Lederer, (n. 2) Subjected to Science, pp. 141-42.
161. Ibid., p. 142.
162. See also Rothman, (n. 69) Strangers, pp. 85-100.
163. Rachel Louise Snyder, "Uninformed consent," www.salon.com, 27 March 2000.
164. Susan Lederer, "Orphans as guinea pigs: American children and medical experimenters, 1890-1930," 96-123
165. and Harry Hendrick, "Child labour, medical capital, and the school medical serivice, c. 1890-1918," 45-71,
166. both in Roger Cooter, ed., In the Name of the Child: Health and Welfare., 1880-1940 (London: Routledge, 1992).
167. For recent discussions of the use of students in medical research, see Protecting Human Subjects: Institutional Review Board Guidelines (Bethesda, Md: National Institutes of Health, 1993);
168. Robert J. Levine, Ethics and Regulation of Clinical Research, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, Md.: Urban and Schwarzenberg, 1986), pp. 80-82;
169. Dennis M. Maloney, Protection of Human Research Subjects: A Practical Guide to Federal Laws and Regulations (New York: Plenum Press, 1984);
170. National Institutes of Health, Protecting Human Subjects: IRB Guidelines (Bethesda, Md.: National Institutes of Health, 1993);
171. Nancy R. Angoff, "Against special protections for medical students," IRB: A Review of Human Subjects Research, 1985, 7, 9-10;
172. Brazzell, Romulus K. and Wayne A. Colburn, "Controversy I: Patients or healthy volunteers for pharmacokinetic studies?" J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1986, 26, 242-56;
173. Nicholas Christakis, "Do medical student research subjects need special protection?" IRB, 1985, 7, 1-4;
174. Jeffrey M. Cohen, "Extra credit for research subjects," IRB, 1982, 4, 10-11;
175. H. F. Gamble, "Case study: students, grades, and informed consent," IRB, 1982, 4, 7-10;
176. Thomas A. Shannon, "Case study: Should medical students be research subjects?" IRB, 1979, 1, 4.
177. Eileen Nechas and Denise Foley, Unequal Treatment: What You Don't Know About How Women are Mistreated by the Medical Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), pp. 14-15.
178. For more on this point, see Lisa Cartwright, "A cultural anatomy of the visible human project," 130-170, and
179. Anne K. Eckman, "Beyond 'The Yentyl syndrome': Making women visible in post-1990 women's health discourse,"
180. both in Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley, eds., The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender, and Science (New York: New York University Press, 1998).