Hormonal regulation of mammary differentiation and milk secretion

Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 49-66

  Neville, Margaret C ^a,d   McFadden, Thomas B ^b   Forsyth, Isabel ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT   (United States)

^c BABRAHAM INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

Breast cancer risk; Endocrine regulation; Lactogenesis; Placental lactogen; Progesterone; Prolactin

Indexed keywords

ALPHA LACTALBUMIN; BETA CASEIN; CORTICOSTEROID; GROWTH HORMONE; INSULIN; LEPTIN; OXYTOCIN; OXYTOCIN RECEPTOR; PARATHYROID HORMONE RELATED PROTEIN; PLACENTA LACTOGEN; PROGESTERONE; PROLACTIN; PROLACTIN RECEPTOR; THYROID HORMONE; HORMONE;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL TISSUE; AUTOCRINE EFFECT; BREAST CANCER; BREAST DEVELOPMENT; CANCER RISK; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEMALE; HORMONAL REGULATION; INVOLUTION; KNOCKOUT MOUSE; LACTATION; MILK PRODUCTION; MORPHOGENESIS; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; PREGNANCY; PROLACTIN RELEASE; REVIEW; ANIMAL; BREAST; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CYTOLOGY; HUMAN; METABOLISM; MILK; PHYSIOLOGY; SECRETION; UDDER;

ANIMALS; BREAST; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; FEMALE; HORMONES; HUMANS; LACTATION; MAMMARY GLANDS, ANIMAL; MILK; PREGNANCY;

EID: 0036357253     PISSN: 10833021     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1015770423167     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. R. C. Hovey, J. Trott, and B. K. Vonderhaar (2002). Establishing a framework for the functional mammary gland: From endocrinology to morphology. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:17-38.
2. A. T. Cowie, I. A. Forsyth, and I. C. Hart (1980). Hormonal control of lactation. Monogr. Endocrinol. 1-275.
3. Y. J. Topper and C. S. Freeman (1980). Multiple hormone interactions in the developmental biology of the mammary gland. Physiol. Rev. 60:1049-1106.
4. J. A. Mol, I. Lantinga-van Leeuwen, E. van Garderen, and A. Rijnberk (2000). Progestin-induced mammary growth hormone (GH) production. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 480:71-76.
5. K. Lippuner, H. J. Zehnder, J. P. Casez, R. Takkinen, and P. Jaeger (1996). PTH-related protein is released into the mother's bloodstream during lactation: Evidence for beneficial effects on maternal calcium-phosphate metabolism. J. Bone Miner. Res. 11:1394-1399.
6. B. Woodside, A. Abizaid, and C. Walker (2000). Changes in leptin levels during lactation: Implications for lactational hyperphagia and anovulation. Horm. Behav. 37:353-365.
7. C. V. Clevenger and T. L. Plank (1997). Prolactin as an autocrine/paracrine factor in breast tissue. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:59-68.
8. P. Ramamoorthy, R. Sticca, T. E. Wagner, and W. Y. Chen (2001). In vitro studies of a prolactin antagonist, hPRL-G129R in human breast cancer cells. Int. J. Oncol. 18:25-32.
9. B. K. Vonderhaar (1999). Prolactin involvement in breast cancer. Endocr. Relat. Cancer 6:389-404.
10. J. L. Kelsey and M. D. Gammon (1990). Epidemiology of breast cancer. Epidemiol. Rev. 12:228-249.
11. D. Medina and G. H. Smith (1999). Chemical carcinogen-induced tumorigenesis in parous, involuted mouse mammary glands. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 91:967-969.
12. G. Thordarson, K. Van Horn, R. C. Guzman, S. Nandi, and F. Talamantes (2001). Parous rats regain high susceptibility to chemically induced mammary cancer after treatment with various mammotropic hormones. Carcinogenesis 22:1027-1033.
13. L. Sivaraman, S. G. Hilsenbeck, L. Zhong, J. Gay, O. M. Conneely, D. Medina, and B. W. O'Malley (2001). Early exposure of the rat mammary gland to estrogen and progesterone blocks co-localization of estrogen receptor expression and proliferation. J. Endocrinol. 171:75-83.
14. C. Brisken (2002). Hormonal control of alveolar development and its implications for breast carcinogenesis. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:49-66.
15. P. E. Hartmann (1973). Changes in the composition and yield of the mammary secretion of cows during the initiation of lactation. J. Endocr. 59:231-247.
16. G. W. Robinson, R. A. McKnight, G. H. Smith, and L. Hennighausen (1995). Mammary epithelial cells undergo secretory differentiation in cycling virgins but require pregnancy for the establishment of terminal differentiation. Development 121:2079-2090.
17. R. H. Martin, M. R. Glass, C. Chapman, G. D. Wilson, and K. L. Woods (1980). Human alpha-lactalbumin and hormonal factors in pregnancy and lactation. Clin. Endocrinol. 13:223-230.
18. M. C. Neville, J. Morton, and S. Umemora (2001). Lactogenesis: The transition from pregnancy to lactation. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 48:35-52.
19. H. H. Traurig (1967). Cell proliferation in the mammary gland during late pregnancy and lactation. Anat. Rec. 157:489-504.
20. N. Normanno and F. Ciardiello (1997). EGF-related peptides in the pathophysiology of the mammary gland. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:143-151.
21. K. L. Troyer and D. C. Lee (2001). Regulation of mouse mammary gland development and tumorigenesis by the ERBB signaling network. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 6:7-21.
22. C. W. Daniel, S. Robinson, and G. B. Silberstein (1996). The role of TGF-β in patterning and growth of the mammary ductal tree. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 1:331-341.
23. J. W. Pollard (2001). Tumour-stromal interactions: Transforming growth factor-beta isoforms and hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor in mammary gland ductal morphogenesis. Breast Cancer Res. 3:230-237.
24. T. L. Wood, M. M. Richert, M. A. Stull, and M. A. Allar (2000). The insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and IGF binding proteins in postnatal development of murine mammary glands. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 5:31-42.
25. T. B. McFadden, R. M. Akers, and G. W. Kazmer (1987). Alpha-lactalbumin in bovine serum: Relationships with udder development and function. J. Dairy Sci. 70:259-264.
26. B. K. Vonderhaar and S. E. Ziska (1989). Hormonal regulation of milk protein gene expression. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 51:641-652.
27. R. P. Deis and C. Delouis (1983). Lactogenesis induced by ovariectomy in pregnant rats and its regulation by oestrogen and progesterone. J. Steroid Biochem. 18:687-690.
28. Y. Mizoguchi, J. Y. Kim, T. Sasaki, T. Hama, M. Sasaki, J. Enami, and S. Sakai (1996). Acute expression of the PRL receptor gene after ovariectomy in midpregnant mouse mammary gland. Endocrine. J. 43:537-544.
29. Y. Mizoguchi, H. Yamaguchi, F. Aoki, J. Enami, and S. Sakai (1997). Corticosterone is required for the prolactin receptor gene expression in the late pregnant mouse mammary gland. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 132:177-183.
30. S. Nishikawa, R. C. Moore, N. Nonomura, and T. Oka (1994). Progesterone and EGF inhibit mouse mammary gland prolactin receptor and β-casein gene expression. Am. J. Physiol. 267:C1467-C1472.
31. D. D. Nguyen, A. F. Parlow, and M. C. Neville (2001). Hormonal regulation of tight junction closure in the mouse mammary epithelium during the transition from pregnancy to lactation. J. Endocrinol. 170:347-356.
32. M. E. Freeman, B. Kanyicska, A. Lerant, and G. Nagy (2000). Prolactin: Structure, function and regulation of secretion. Physiol. Rev. 80:1523-1631.
33. Z. B. Andrews, I. C. Kokay, and D. R. Grattan (2001). Dissociation of prolactin secretion from tuberoinfundibular dopamine activity in late pregnant rats. Endocrinology 142: 2719-2724.
34. D. J. Mellor, D. J. Flint, R. G. Vernon, and I. A. Forsyth (1987). Relationships between plasma hormone concentrations, udder development and the production of early mammary secretions in twin-bearing ewes on different planes of nutrition. Quart. J. Exp. Physiol. 72:345-356.
35. R. De Hertogh, K. Thomas, Y. Bietlot, I. Vanderheyden, and J. Ferin (1975). Plasma levels of unconjugated estrone, estradiol and estriol and of HCS throughout pregnancy in normal women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 40:93-101.
36. D. Tulchinsky, C. J. Hobel, E. Yeager, and J. R. Marshall (1972). Plasma estrone, estradiol, progesterone and 17-hydroxyprogesterone in human pregnancy. 1. Normal pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 112:1095-1100.
37. L. A. Rigg, A. Lein, and S. S. Yen (1977). Pattern of increase in circulating prolactin levels during human gestation. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 129:454-456.
38. B. R. Carr, C. R. Parker Jr., J. D. Madden, P. C. MacDonald, and J. C. Porter (1981). Maternal plasma adrenocorticotropin and cortisol relationships throughout human pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 139:416-422.
39. M. C. Neville (1983). Regulation of mammary development and lactation. In M. C. Neville and M. R. Neifert (eds.), Lactation:Physiology, Nutrition and Breast-feeding, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 103-140.
40. R. H. Martin and R. E. Oakey (1982). The role of antenatal oestrogen in post-partum human lactogenesis: Evidence from oestrogen-deficient pregnancies. Clin. Endocrinol. 17: 403-408.
41. J. K. Kulski, P. E. Hartmann, J. D. Martin, and M. Smith (1978). Effects of bromocriptine mesylate on the composition of the mammary secretion in non-breast-feeding women. Obstet. Gynecol. 52:38-42.
42. I. A. Forsyth and P. D. Lee (1993). Bromocriptine treatment of periparturient goats: Long-term suppression of prolactin and lack of effect on lactation. J. Dairy Res. 60:307-317.
43. D. Schams (1972). Prolactin levels in bovine blood, influenced by milking manipulation, genital stimulation and oxytocin adminstration with specific consideration of the seasonal variations. Acta Endocrinol. 71:684-696.
44. C. C. K. Tay, A. F. Glasier, and A. S. McNeilly (1996). Twenty-four hour patterns of prolactin secretion during lactation and the relationship to suckling and the resumption of fertility in breast-feeding women. Hum. Reprod. 11:950-955.
45. D. J. Flint and R. G. Vernon (1998). Effects of food restriction on the responses of the mammary gland and adipose tissue to prolactin and growth hormone in the lactating rat. J. Endocrinol. 156:299-305.
46. L. J. Benedek-Jaszmann and V. Sternthal (1976). Late suppression of lactation with bromocryptine. Practitioner 216:450.
47. H. Nagasawa and R. Yanai (1978). Mammary gland prolactin receptor and pituitary prolactin secretion in lactating mice with different lactational performance. Acta Endocrinol. 88:94-98.
48. D. J. Flint and C. H. Knight (1997). Interactions of prolactin and growth hormone in the regulation of mamary gland function and epithelial cell survival. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:41-48.
49. K. L. Schwertfeger, M. M. Richer, and S. M. Anderson (2001). Mammary gland involution is delayed by activated Akt in transgenic mice. Mol. Endocrinol. 15:867-881.
50. C. Bole-Feysot, V. Goffin, M. Edery, N. Binart, and P. A. Kelly (1998). Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: Actions, signal transduction pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice. Endocr. Rev. 19:225-268.
51. S. Cassy, M. Charlier, L. Belair, M. Guillomot, G. Charron, B. Bloch, and J. Djiane (1998). Developmental expression and localization of the prolactin receptor (PRL-R) gene in ewe mammary gland during pregnancy and lactation: Estimation of the ratio of the two forms of PRL-R messenger ribonucleic acid. Biol. Reprod. 58:1290-1296.
52. Z. Z. Hu, J. Meng, and M. L. Dufau (2001). Isolation and characterization of two novel forms of the human prolactin receptor generated by alternative splicing of a newly identified exon 11. J. Biol. Chem. 276:41086-41094.
53. C. Brisken, S. Kaur, T. E. Chavarria, N. Binart, R. L. Sutherland, R. A. Weinberg, P. A. Kelly, and C. J. Ormandy (1999). Prolactin controls mammary gland development via direct and indirect mechanisms. Dev. Biol. 210:96-106.
54. M. I. Gallego, N. Binart, G. W. Robinson, R. Okagaki, K. T. Coschigano, J. Perry, J. J. Kopchick, T. Oka, P. A. Kelly, and L. Hennighausen (2001). Prolactin, growth hormone, and epidermal growth factor activate Stat5 in different compartments of mammary tissue and exert different and overlapping developmental effects. Dev. Biol. 229:163-175.
55. X. Liu, G. W. Robinson, K. U. Wagner, L. Garrett, A. Wynshaw-Boris, and L. Hennighausen (1997). Stat5a is mandatory for adult mammary gland development and lactogenesis. Genes Devel. 11:179-186.
56. M. N. Emane, C. Delouis, P. A. Kelly, and J. Djiane (1986). Evolution of prolactin and placental lactogen receptors in ewes during pregnancy and lactation. Endocrinology 118:695-700.
57. I. A. Forsyth (1994). Comparative aspects of placental lactogens: Structure and function. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. 102:244-251.
58. F. Talamantes and L. Ogren (1988). The placenta as an endocrine organ: Polypeptides. In E. Knobil and J. D. Neill (eds.), The Physiology of Reproduction, Raven Press, New York, pp. 2093-2144.
59. P. Gaede, D. Trolle, and H. Pedersen (1978). Extremely low placental lactogen hormone (hPL) values in an otherwise uneventlful pregnancy preceding delivery of a normal baby. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 57:203-209.
60. P. V. Nielson, H. Pederson, and E. Kampmann (1979). Absence of placental lactogen in an otherwise uneventful pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 135:322-330.
61. A. Herman, C. Bignon, N. Daniel, J. Grosclaude, A. Gertler, and J. Djiane (2000). Functional heterodimerization of prolactin and growth hormone receptors by ovine placental lactogen. J. Biol. Chem. 275:6295-6301.
62. R. W. Caron, G. A. Jahn, and R. P. Deis (1994). Lactogenic actions of different growth hormone preparations in pregnant and lactating rats. J. Endocrinol. 142:535-545.
63. Y. N. Ilkbahar, G. Thordarson, I. G. Camarillo, and F. Talamantes (1999). Differential expression of the growth hormone receptor and growth hormone-binding protein in epithelia and stroma of the mouse mammary gland at various physiological stages. J. Endocrinol. 161:77-87.
64. E. L. Gregoraszczuk, T. Milewicz, J. Kolodziejczyk, J. Krzysiek, A. Basta, K. Sztefko, S. Kurek, and J. Stachura (2001). Progesterone-induced secretion of growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor I and prolactin by human breast cancer explants. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 15:251-258.
65. Y. Zhou, B. C. Xu, H. G. Maheshwari L. He, M. Reed, M. Lozykowski, S. Okada, L. Cataldo, K. Coschigamo, T. E. Wagner, G. Baumann, and J. J. Kopchick (1997). A mammalian model for Laron syndrome produced by targeted disruption of the mouse growth hormone receptor/binding protein gene (the Laron mouse). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94:13215-13220.
66. D. L. Rimoin, G. B. Holzman, T. J. Merimee, D. Rabinowitz, A. C. Barnes, J. E. Tyson, and V. A. McKusick (1968). Lactation in the absence of human growth hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 28:1183-1188.
67. A. L. Rosenbloom, J. Guevara-Aguirre, R. G. Rosenfeld, and U. Francke (1999). Growth hormone receptor deficiency in Ecuador. J. Clin. Endo. Metab. 84:4436-4443.
68. D. E. Bauman and R. G. Vernon (1993). Effects of exogenous bovine somatotropin on lactation. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 13:437-461.
69. D. J. Flint and M. Gardner (1994). Evidence that growth hormone stimulates milk synthesis by direct action on the mammary gland and that prolactin exerts effects on milk secretion by maintenance of mammary deoxyribonucleic acid content and tight junction status. Endocrinology 135:1119-1124.
70. K. M. Darcy, S. F. Shoemaker, P.-P. H. Lee, B. A. Ganis, and M. M. Ip (1995). Hydrocortisone and progesterone regulation of the proliferation, morphogenesis, and functional differentiation of normal rat mammary epithelial cells in three dimensional primary culture. J. Cell. Physiol. 163:365-379.
71. S. Z. Haslam and G. Shyamala (1980). Progesterone receptors in normal mammary gland: Receptor modulations in relation to differentiation. J. Cell Biol. 86:730-737.
72. M. C. Neville and C. T. Walsh (1996). Effects of drugs on milk secretion and composition. In P. N. Bennett (ed.), Drugs and Human Lactation, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 15-45.
73. F. Athie, K. C. Bachman, H. H. Head, M. J. Hayen, and C. J. Wilcox (1996). Estrogen administered at final milk removal accelerates involution of bovine mammary gland. J. Dairy Sci. 79:220-226.
74. H. S. Jin, S. Umemora, T. Iwasaka, and R. Y. Osamura (2000). Alterations of myoepithelial cells in the rat mammary gland during pregnancy, lactation and involution, and after estradiol treatment. Pathol. Int. 50:384-391.
75. Z. Feng, A. Marti, B. Jehn, H. J. Altermatt, G. Chicaiza, and R. Jaggi (1995). Glucocorticoid and progesterone inhibit involution and programmed cell death in the mouse mammary gland. J. Cell Biol. 131:1095-1103.
76. N. F. Butte, J. M. Hopkinson, J. K. Moon, N. Mehta, and E. O. Smith (1999). Adjustments in energy expenditure and substrate utilization during late pregnancy and lactation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69:299-307.
77. K. L. Blaxter, E. P. Reineke, E. S. Crampton, and W. E. Petersen (1949). The role of thyroidal materials and of synthetic goitrogens in animal production and an appraisal of their practical use. J. Anim. Sci. 8:307-352.
78. A. V. Capuco, S. Kahl, L. J. Jack, J. O. Bishop, and H. Wallace (1999). Prolactin and growth hormone stimulation of lactation in mice requires thyroid hormones. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 221:345-351.
79. S. E. Ziska, M. Bhattacharjee, R. L. Herber, P. K. Qasba, and B. K. Vonderhaar (1988). Thyroid hormone regulation of alpha-lactalbumin: Differential glycosylation and messenger ribonucleic acid synthesis in mouse mammary glands. Endocrinology 123:2242-2248.
80. Y. Iwatani, N. Amino, O. Tanizawa, H. Mori, M. Kawashima, Y. Yabu, and K. Miyai (1987). Decrease of free thyroxin in serum of lactating women. Clin. Chem. 33:1217-1219.
81. G. A. van Haasteren, H. van Toor, W. Klootwijk, B. Handler, E. Linkels, P. van der Schoot, J. van Ophemert, F. H. DeJong, T. J. Visser, and W. J. de Greef (1996). Studies on the role of TRH and corticosterone in the regulation of prolactin and thyrotrophin secretion during lactation. J. Endocrinol. 148:325-336.
82. L. J. Jack, S. Kahl, D. L. St Germain, and A. V. Capuco (1994). Tissue distribution and regulation of 5′-deiodinase processes in lactating rats. J. Endocrinol. 142:205-215.
83. L. Navarro, A. Landa, C. Valverde-R, and C. Aceves (1999). Mammary gland type I iodthyronine deiodinase is encoded by a short messenger ribonucleic acid. Endocrinology 138:4248-4254.
84. L. Quevedo-Corona, M. Franco-Colin, M. Caudillo-Romero, J. Pacheco-Rosado, S. Zamudio-Hernandez, and R. Racotta (2000). 3,5,3′-Triiodothyronine administered to rat dams during lactation increases milk yield and triglyceride concentration and hastens pups growth. Life Sci. 66:2013-2121.
85. S. R. Davis, R. J. Collier, J. P. McManamara, H. H. Head, and W. Sussman (1988). Effects of thyroxine and growth hormone treatment of dairy cows on milk yield, cardiac output and mammary blood flow. J. Anim. Sci. 66:70-79.
86. F. Peters, J. Schulze-Tollert, and W. Schuth (1991). Thyrotrophin- releasing hormone - A lactation-promoting agent? Br. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 98:880-885.
87. S. Y. Kyriakou and N. J. Kuhn (1973). Lactogenesis in the diabetic rat. J. Endocrinol. 59:199-200.
88. K. Hove (1978). Maintenance of lactose secretion during acute insulin deficiency in lactating goats. Acta Physiol. Scand. 103:173-179.
89. M. C. Neville and M. F. Picciano (1997). Regulation of milk lipid synthesis and composition. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 17:159-184.
90. R. A. DeFronzo, J. D. Tobin, and R. Andres (1979). The glucose clamp technique. A method for quantifying insulin secretion and resistance. Am. J. Physiol. 237:E214-E223.
91. J. M. Griinari, M. A. McGuire, D. A. Dwyer, D. E. Bauman, D. M. Barbano, and W. E. House (1997). The role of insulin in the regulation of milk protein synthesis in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 80:2361-2371.
92. M. C. Neville, V. Sawicki, and W. W. Hay Jr. (1993). Effect of fasting, elevated plasma glucose and plasma insulin concentrations on milk secretion in women. J. Endocrinol. 139:165-173.
93. W. R. Crowley and W. E. Armstrong (1992). Neurochemical regulation of oxytocin secretion in lactation. Endocr. Rev. 13:33-65.
94. W. S. Young III, E. Shepard, J. Amico, L. Hennighausen, K. U. Wagner, M. E. LaMarca, C. McKinney, and E. I. Ginns (1996). Deficiency in mouse oxytocin prevents milk ejection, but not fertility or parturition. J. Neuroendocrinol. 8:847-853.
95. G. Gimpl and F. Fahrenholz (2001). The oxytocin receptor system: Structure, function and regulation. Physiol. Rev 81:629-683.
96. R. M. Akers and A. M. Lefcourt (1982). Milking-and suckling-induced secretion of oxytocin and prolactin in parturient dairy cows. Horm. Behav. 16:87-93.
97. A. S. McNeilly, I. C. Robinson, M. J. Houston, and P. W. Howie (1983). Release of oxytocin and prolactin in response to suckling. Br. Med. J. Clin. Res. 286:257-259.
98. M. S. Soloff, M. Alexandrova, and M. J. Fernstrom (1979). Oxytocin receptors: Triggers for parturition and lactation? Science 204:1313-1315.
99. A. Sapino, L. Macri, L. Tonda, and G. Bussolati (1993). Oxytocin enhances myoepithelial cell differentiation and proliferation in the mouse mammary gland. Endocrinology 133:838-842.
100. J. A. Amico, A. Thomas, R. S. Crowley, and L. A. Burmeister (1998). Concentrations of leptin in the serum of pregnant, lactating, and cycling rats and of leptin messenger ribonucleic acid in rat placental tissue. Life Sci. 63:1387-1395.
101. H. J. Kalkwarf (1999). Hormonal and dietary regulation of changes in bone density during lactation and after weaning in women. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 4:319-329.
102. P. Martyn and I. A. Hansen (1981). Initiation of lipogenic enzyme activities in rat mammary glands. Biochem. J. 198:187-192.
103. R. W. Mellenberger and D. E. Bauman (1974). Metabolic adaptations during lactogenesis: Fatty acid synthesis in rabbit mammary tissue during pregnancy and lactation. Biochem. J 138:373-379.
104. M. Peaker and C. J. Wilde (1996). Feedback control of milk secretion from milk. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 1:307-315.
105. R. D. Burgoyne and C. J. Wilde (1994). Control of secretory function in mammary epithelial cells. Cell. Signal. 6:607-616.
106. K. A. Hammond, K. C. Lloyd, and J. Diamond (1996). Is mammary output capacity limiting to lactational performance in mice. J. Exp. Biol. 199:337-349.
107. A. W. Bell and D. E. Bauman (1997). Adaptations of glucose metabolism during pregnancy and lactation. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:265-278.
108. M. C. Neville (1995). Volume and caloric density of human milk. In R. G. Jensen (ed.), Handbook of Milk Composition, Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 101-113.
109. C. J. Wilde, C. H. Knight, and D. J. Flint (1999). Control of milk secretion and apoptosis during mammary involution. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 4:129-136.
110. A. Marti, Z. W. Feng, H. J. Altermatt, and R. Jaggi (1997). Milk accumulation triggers apoptosis of mammary epithelial cells. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 73:158-165.
111. E. Tonner, G. J. Allan, and D. J. Flint (2000). Hormonal control of plasmin and tissue-type plasminogen activator activity in rat milk during involution of the mammary gland. J. Endocrinol. 167:265-273.
112. I. H. Russo, M. Koszalka, and J. Russo (1990). Human chorionic gonadotropin and rat mammary cancer prevention. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 82:1286-1289.
113. L. Sivaraman, O. M. Conneely, D. Medina, and B. W. O'Malley (2001). p53 is a potential mediator of pregnancy and hormone-induced resistance to mammary carcinogenesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:12379-12384.
114. H. P. Gardner, S. I. Ha, C. Reynolds, and L. A. Chodosh (2000). The caM kinase, Pnck, is spatially and temporally regulated during murine mammary gland development and may identify an epithelial cell subtype involved in breast cancer. Cancer Res. 60:5571-5577.