Class structures and social mobility in Taiwan in the initial post-war period

China Journal

Volumn , Issue 48, 2002, Pages 54-85

  Wang, Hong Zen ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY; EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT; OCCUPATION; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS;

TAIWAN;

EID: 0036320953     PISSN: 13249347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3182441     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. This model was developed by Peter M. Blau and Otis Dudley Duncan, see their The American Occupational Structure (New York: Wiley, 1967).
2. Hong-zen Wang, "Ethnicized Social Mobility in Taiwan: Mobility Patterns among Owners of Small and Medium-Scale Businesses", Modern China, Vol. 27, No. 3 (July 2001), pp. 328-58; Huang Yizhi, "Taiwan diqu jiaoyu jihui bupingdengxing zhi bianqian" (The Change of Inequality in Educational Opportunity), Zhongguo shehui xuekan (Chinese Journal of Sociology), No. 18 (1995), pp. 243-73; Shu-ling Tsai and Hei-yuan Chiu, "Bijiao Taiwan ge zuqun zhi jiaoyu qude" (Educational Attainment in Taiwan: Comparisons of Ethnic Groups), Renwen ji shehuixue jikan (Proceedings for Humanities and Social Sciences), Vol. 3, No. 2 (1993), pp. 188-202.
3. Hong-zen Wang, "Ethnicized Social Mobility in Taiwan: Mobility Patterns among Owners of Small and Medium-Scale Businesses", Modern China, Vol. 27, No. 3 (July 2001), pp. 328-58; Huang Yizhi, "Taiwan diqu jiaoyu jihui bupingdengxing zhi bianqian" (The Change of Inequality in Educational Opportunity), Zhongguo shehui xuekan (Chinese Journal of Sociology), No. 18 (1995), pp. 243-73; Shu-ling Tsai and Hei-yuan Chiu, "Bijiao Taiwan ge zuqun zhi jiaoyu qude" (Educational Attainment in Taiwan: Comparisons of Ethnic Groups), Renwen ji shehuixue jikan (Proceedings for Humanities and Social Sciences), Vol. 3, No. 2 (1993), pp. 188-202.
4. Hong-zen Wang, "Ethnicized Social Mobility in Taiwan: Mobility Patterns among Owners of Small and Medium-Scale Businesses", Modern China, Vol. 27, No. 3 (July 2001), pp. 328-58; Huang Yizhi, "Taiwan diqu jiaoyu jihui bupingdengxing zhi bianqian" (The Change of Inequality in Educational Opportunity), Zhongguo shehui xuekan (Chinese Journal of Sociology), No. 18 (1995), pp. 243-73; Shu-ling Tsai and Hei-yuan Chiu, "Bijiao Taiwan ge zuqun zhi jiaoyu qude" (Educational Attainment in Taiwan: Comparisons of Ethnic Groups), Renwen ji shehuixue jikan (Proceedings for Humanities and Social Sciences), Vol. 3, No. 2 (1993), pp. 188-202.
5. The term "Taiwanese" refers to Han Chinese present in Taiwan before 1945 and their descendants, namely the Minnan (Hokkien-speaking) and Hakka groupings, while "mainlander" refers to those who came to Taiwan from China after 1945 and their descendants.
6. Martin M. C. Yang, Socio-Economic Results of Land Reform in Taiwan (Honolulu: East-West Centre Press, 1970); Chang Yen-tien, "Land Reform and its Impact on Economic and Social Progress in Taiwan", Industry of Free China, Vol. 23 No. 4 (April 1965); Cai Hongjin, Taiwan nongdi gaige dui shehui jingji yingxiang de yanjiu (Research on the Influence of Land Reform on the Social Economy in Taiwan) (Taipei: Jiaxin Cement Cultural Foundation, 1967); Ka Chih-ming and Mark Seiden, "Yuanshi jilei, pingdeng yu gongyehua: yi shehui zhuyi zhongguo yu ziben zhuyi Taiwan wei anli zhi fenxi" (Original Accumulation, Equalization and Industrialization: A Comparison between Socialist China and Capitalist Taiwan), Taiwan shehui yanjiu jikan (Taiwan: A Radical Quarterly in Social Studies), Vol. 1, No.1 (Spring 1988), pp. 11-52.
7. Martin M. C. Yang, Socio-Economic Results of Land Reform in Taiwan (Honolulu: East-West Centre Press, 1970); Chang Yen-tien, "Land Reform and its Impact on Economic and Social Progress in Taiwan", Industry of Free China, Vol. 23 No. 4 (April 1965); Cai Hongjin, Taiwan nongdi gaige dui shehui jingji yingxiang de yanjiu (Research on the Influence of Land Reform on the Social Economy in Taiwan) (Taipei: Jiaxin Cement Cultural Foundation, 1967); Ka Chih-ming and Mark Seiden, "Yuanshi jilei, pingdeng yu gongyehua: yi shehui zhuyi zhongguo yu ziben zhuyi Taiwan wei anli zhi fenxi" (Original Accumulation, Equalization and Industrialization: A Comparison between Socialist China and Capitalist Taiwan), Taiwan shehui yanjiu jikan (Taiwan: A Radical Quarterly in Social Studies), Vol. 1, No.1 (Spring 1988), pp. 11-52.
8. Martin M. C. Yang, Socio-Economic Results of Land Reform in Taiwan (Honolulu: East-West Centre Press, 1970); Chang Yen-tien, "Land Reform and its Impact on Economic and Social Progress in Taiwan", Industry of Free China, Vol. 23 No. 4 (April 1965); Cai Hongjin, Taiwan nongdi gaige dui shehui jingji yingxiang de yanjiu (Research on the Influence of Land Reform on the Social Economy in Taiwan) (Taipei: Jiaxin Cement Cultural Foundation, 1967); Ka Chih-ming and Mark Seiden, "Yuanshi jilei, pingdeng yu gongyehua: yi shehui zhuyi zhongguo yu ziben zhuyi Taiwan wei anli zhi fenxi" (Original Accumulation, Equalization and Industrialization: A Comparison between Socialist China and Capitalist Taiwan), Taiwan shehui yanjiu jikan (Taiwan: A Radical Quarterly in Social Studies), Vol. 1, No.1 (Spring 1988), pp. 11-52.
9. Martin M. C. Yang, Socio-Economic Results of Land Reform in Taiwan (Honolulu: East-West Centre Press, 1970); Chang Yen-tien, "Land Reform and its Impact on Economic and Social Progress in Taiwan", Industry of Free China, Vol. 23 No. 4 (April 1965); Cai Hongjin, Taiwan nongdi gaige dui shehui jingji yingxiang de yanjiu (Research on the Influence of Land Reform on the Social Economy in Taiwan) (Taipei: Jiaxin Cement Cultural Foundation, 1967); Ka Chih-ming and Mark Seiden, "Yuanshi jilei, pingdeng yu gongyehua: yi shehui zhuyi zhongguo yu ziben zhuyi Taiwan wei anli zhi fenxi" (Original Accumulation, Equalization and Industrialization: A Comparison between Socialist China and Capitalist Taiwan), Taiwan shehui yanjiu jikan (Taiwan: A Radical Quarterly in Social Studies), Vol. 1, No.1 (Spring 1988), pp. 11-52.
10. The 1990 and 1992 General Survey of Social Change in Taiwan was sponsored by Taiwan's National Science Council. This research project was carried out by the Institute of Ethnology at the Academia Sinica, under the direction of Dr Chiu Hei-yuan. The Office of Survey Research at the Academia Sinica was responsible for data distribution. I appreciate the assistance of these institutes and individuals in providing the raw data. The views expressed in this paper are my own. The Institute of Ethnology at Academia Sinica has conducted general surveys on social change in Taiwan since the early 1980s. The first survey was carried out in 1984 and the second in 1990. Since then the institute has conducted a survey each year on different social issues. Further information on the survey is available at the following Web site: 〈http://www.sinica.edu.tw/as/survey/srda/intro_d.html〉.
11. See Liu Jinqing, Sengo Taiwan keizai bunshiki: 1945nen kara 1965nen (Analysis of Taiwan Postwar Economy: From 1945 to 1965) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975), pp. 26-30. Liu's book is one of the pioneer works on Taiwan's initial postwar economic development. Trained in the Japanese economics tradidtion, Liu used Marxist theory to explain capitalist development in this period. This book contains abundant statistics. It has been translated into Chinese as Taiwan zhanhou jingji fenxi by Hong-zen Wang, Li Mingjun and Jih-wen Lin (Taipei: Renjian Chubanshe, 1992). I rely extensively on Liu's data in this paper.
12. See Liu Jinqing, Sengo Taiwan keizai bunshiki: 1945nen kara 1965nen (Analysis of Taiwan Postwar Economy: From 1945 to 1965) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975), pp. 26-30. Liu's book is one of the pioneer works on Taiwan's initial postwar economic development. Trained in the Japanese economics tradidtion, Liu used Marxist theory to explain capitalist development in this period. This book contains abundant statistics. It has been translated into Chinese as Taiwan zhanhou jingji fenxi by Hong-zen Wang, Li Mingjun and Jih-wen Lin (Taipei: Renjian Chubanshe, 1992). I rely extensively on Liu's data in this paper.
13. In 1952 the public sector accounted for 57.3 per cent of total industrial production. See Liu, ibid., p. 117.
14. Relevant studies about the influence of Japanese colonisation on Taiwan include Tu Jaw-yan, Nihon teikoku shugi ka no Taiwan (Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975); George W. Barclay, Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); Harry J. Lamley, "Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895-1945: The Vicissitudes of Colonialism", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 201-60; Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 15-25; Zhou Xianwen, "Riju shidai Taiwan jingjishi" (Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times), Taiwan Research Paper No. 59 (Taipei: Economic Research Centre, Bank of Taiwan, 1958); Lin Jih-wen, Riben jutai moqi zhanzheng zongdongyuan tixi zhi yanju (1930-1945) (Research on the War Mobilization System in Late Japanese Colonial Times) (Taipei: Daoxiang Chubanshe, 1996).
15. Relevant studies about the influence of Japanese colonisation on Taiwan include Tu Jaw-yan, Nihon teikoku shugi ka no Taiwan (Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975); George W. Barclay, Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); Harry J. Lamley, "Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895-1945: The Vicissitudes of Colonialism", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 201-60; Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 15-25; Zhou Xianwen, "Riju shidai Taiwan jingjishi" (Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times), Taiwan Research Paper No. 59 (Taipei: Economic Research Centre, Bank of Taiwan, 1958); Lin Jih-wen, Riben jutai moqi zhanzheng zongdongyuan tixi zhi yanju (1930-1945) (Research on the War Mobilization System in Late Japanese Colonial Times) (Taipei: Daoxiang Chubanshe, 1996).
16. Relevant studies about the influence of Japanese colonisation on Taiwan include Tu Jaw-yan, Nihon teikoku shugi ka no Taiwan (Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975); George W. Barclay, Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); Harry J. Lamley, "Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895-1945: The Vicissitudes of Colonialism", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 201-60; Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 15-25; Zhou Xianwen, "Riju shidai Taiwan jingjishi" (Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times), Taiwan Research Paper No. 59 (Taipei: Economic Research Centre, Bank of Taiwan, 1958); Lin Jih-wen, Riben jutai moqi zhanzheng zongdongyuan tixi zhi yanju (1930-1945) (Research on the War Mobilization System in Late Japanese Colonial Times) (Taipei: Daoxiang Chubanshe, 1996).
17. Relevant studies about the influence of Japanese colonisation on Taiwan include Tu Jaw-yan, Nihon teikoku shugi ka no Taiwan (Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975); George W. Barclay, Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); Harry J. Lamley, "Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895-1945: The Vicissitudes of Colonialism", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 201-60; Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 15-25; Zhou Xianwen, "Riju shidai Taiwan jingjishi" (Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times), Taiwan Research Paper No. 59 (Taipei: Economic Research Centre, Bank of Taiwan, 1958); Lin Jih-wen, Riben jutai moqi zhanzheng zongdongyuan tixi zhi yanju (1930-1945) (Research on the War Mobilization System in Late Japanese Colonial Times) (Taipei: Daoxiang Chubanshe, 1996).
18. Relevant studies about the influence of Japanese colonisation on Taiwan include Tu Jaw-yan, Nihon teikoku shugi ka no Taiwan (Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975); George W. Barclay, Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); Harry J. Lamley, "Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895-1945: The Vicissitudes of Colonialism", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 201-60; Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 15-25; Zhou Xianwen, "Riju shidai Taiwan jingjishi" (Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times), Taiwan Research Paper No. 59 (Taipei: Economic Research Centre, Bank of Taiwan, 1958); Lin Jih-wen, Riben jutai moqi zhanzheng zongdongyuan tixi zhi yanju (1930-1945) (Research on the War Mobilization System in Late Japanese Colonial Times) (Taipei: Daoxiang Chubanshe, 1996).
19. Relevant studies about the influence of Japanese colonisation on Taiwan include Tu Jaw-yan, Nihon teikoku shugi ka no Taiwan (Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism) (Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press, 1975); George W. Barclay, Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); Harry J. Lamley, "Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895-1945: The Vicissitudes of Colonialism", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 201-60; Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 15-25; Zhou Xianwen, "Riju shidai Taiwan jingjishi" (Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times), Taiwan Research Paper No. 59 (Taipei: Economic Research Centre, Bank of Taiwan, 1958); Lin Jih-wen, Riben jutai moqi zhanzheng zongdongyuan tixi zhi yanju (1930-1945) (Research on the War Mobilization System in Late Japanese Colonial Times) (Taipei: Daoxiang Chubanshe, 1996).
20. Mau-kuei Chang, "On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity", China Perspectives, No. 28 (March-April 2000), pp. 62-4; Steven Phillips, "Between Assimilation and Independence: Taiwanese Political Aspirations under Nationalist Chinese Rule, 1945-1948", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 288-92. Two first-hand English-language accounts of the uprising are Peng Ming-min's A Taste of Freedom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972) and George Kerr's Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). Basic introductory sources to this period are Ralph Clough's Island China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) and Thomas Gold's State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
21. Mau-kuei Chang, "On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity", China Perspectives, No. 28 (March-April 2000), pp. 62-4; Steven Phillips, "Between Assimilation and Independence: Taiwanese Political Aspirations under Nationalist Chinese Rule, 1945-1948", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 288-92. Two first-hand English-language accounts of the uprising are Peng Ming-min's A Taste of Freedom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972) and George Kerr's Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). Basic introductory sources to this period are Ralph Clough's Island China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) and Thomas Gold's State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
22. Mau-kuei Chang, "On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity", China Perspectives, No. 28 (March-April 2000), pp. 62-4; Steven Phillips, "Between Assimilation and Independence: Taiwanese Political Aspirations under Nationalist Chinese Rule, 1945-1948", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 288-92. Two first-hand English-language accounts of the uprising are Peng Ming-min's A Taste of Freedom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972) and George Kerr's Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). Basic introductory sources to this period are Ralph Clough's Island China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) and Thomas Gold's State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
23. Mau-kuei Chang, "On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity", China Perspectives, No. 28 (March-April 2000), pp. 62-4; Steven Phillips, "Between Assimilation and Independence: Taiwanese Political Aspirations under Nationalist Chinese Rule, 1945-1948", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 288-92. Two first-hand English-language accounts of the uprising are Peng Ming-min's A Taste of Freedom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972) and George Kerr's Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). Basic introductory sources to this period are Ralph Clough's Island China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) and Thomas Gold's State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
24. Mau-kuei Chang, "On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity", China Perspectives, No. 28 (March-April 2000), pp. 62-4; Steven Phillips, "Between Assimilation and Independence: Taiwanese Political Aspirations under Nationalist Chinese Rule, 1945-1948", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 288-92. Two first-hand English-language accounts of the uprising are Peng Ming-min's A Taste of Freedom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972) and George Kerr's Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). Basic introductory sources to this period are Ralph Clough's Island China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) and Thomas Gold's State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
25. Mau-kuei Chang, "On the Origins and Transformation of Taiwanese National Identity", China Perspectives, No. 28 (March-April 2000), pp. 62-4; Steven Phillips, "Between Assimilation and Independence: Taiwanese Political Aspirations under Nationalist Chinese Rule, 1945-1948", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 288-92. Two first-hand English-language accounts of the uprising are Peng Ming-min's A Taste of Freedom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972) and George Kerr's Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). Basic introductory sources to this period are Ralph Clough's Island China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) and Thomas Gold's State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).
26. Unless noted, a Taiwan dollar refers to the old Taiwan dollar. The New Taiwan dollar (NT$) was used after June 1949. The exchange rate between the old Taiwan dollar and the New Taiwan dollar was 40,000:1.
27. See Huang Bing, Wu Zanshi, Shen Songlai, Cai Rixin, Lin Hebo, Cai Huangzhang and Chen Jie, "Wei qingqiu weichi 815 yihou maishou richan wuxiao yuanan lianhe qingyuan yian buju liyou yishi" (Petition to the National Resources Committee to Invalidate Transactions with the Japanese after the 15th of August). A document in the archives of the Historica Sinica (14 September 1948).
28. Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, p. 67.
29. Lee Teng-hui, "Taiwan nonggong bumenjian zhi ziben liutong" (Intersectoral Capital Flows in the Economic Development of Taiwan, 1895-1960) Taiwan Research Paper No. 106 (Taipei: Economic Research Centre, Bank of Taiwan, 1972), p. 119, table 89.
30. Xie Guoxing, "You shang er gong: guangfu chuqi Tainan bang de tuibian" (From Commerce to Industry: the Transformation of Tainan Business Group in the Early Post-War Period), in Lai Jeh-Han (ed.), Taiwan guangfu chuqi lishi (Taiwan's History during the Early Post-war Period) (Taipei: Sun Yat-sen Institute for Social Sciences and Philosophy, Academia Sinica, 1993), pp. 335-64.
31. Wu Wenxing, Riju shiqi Taiwan shehui lingdao jieceng zhi yanjiu (Research on Taiwan's Leading Strata in Japanese Times) (Taipei: Zhengzhong Chubanshe, 1992), pp. 114-24.
32. At that time one Taiwan dollar could buy 12 kilograms of rice. See Ziyuan weiyuanhui Taiwan tongkuang choubeichu (Preliminary Work Team of Taiwan Copper and Mining Company of the National Resources Commission), Zai tai xiufu shiye ji taibao jiuye qingxing baogao (Reports on the Reconstruction in Taiwan and the Situation of Taiwanese Employment), unpublished document (1947). Data is from the Historica Sinica archive.
33. There were five main factions within the party at that time: the C-C. Military Statistical Bureau, Song Family, Political Science and Tuan Cliques. The following paragraph draws mainly on information in Chen Mingtong's article "Paixi zhengzhi yu Chen Yi zhitailun" (Factional Politics and Chen Yi's Policy to Taiwan), in Lai, Taiwan's History, pp. 223-302.
34. Chen, Factional Politics and Chen Yi's Policy to Taiwan, pp. 264-71.
35. Ibid., p. 264.
36. Watanabe Nagao, Chugoku shihonshugi to sengo keizai (Chinese Capitalism and the Postwar Economy) (Tokyo: Taga Keizai Shinbunsha, 1950), p. 59. This is cited in Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, p. 231, note 9.
37. Watanabe Nagao, Chugoku shihonshugi to sengo keizai (Chinese Capitalism and the Postwar Economy) (Tokyo: Taga Keizai Shinbunsha, 1950), p. 59. This is cited in Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, p. 231, note 9.
38. Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, p. 56, table 13.
39. The Taiwan dollar's real purchasing power was about 30 per cent undervalued in relation to the Chinese currency. See ibid., p. 49.
40. S. Trone, General Report on Taiwan, unpublished manuscript submitted to the National Resources Commission, Nanking, China, 21 January 1948, p. 7.
41. Chen, Factional Politics and Chen Yi's Policy to Taiwan, p. 272.
42. In 1944 there were approximately 114,000 landlords in an agricultural population of 3.3 million. Wu Tianquan, Taiwan de tudi wenn (The Land Problem in Taiwan) (Taipei: unknown publisher), p. 30; Zhou, Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times, p. 14.
43. In 1944 there were approximately 114,000 landlords in an agricultural population of 3.3 million. Wu Tianquan, Taiwan de tudi wenn (The Land Problem in Taiwan) (Taipei: unknown publisher), p. 30; Zhou, Taiwan Economic History during Japanese Colonial Times, p. 14.
44. A 1952 survey of 351 tenants recorded the rent paid in 1948 as the following percentages of the year's crop: table presented See Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, Rural Survey of Taiwan, October-December, 1952 (Taipei: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, 1953), "Tabular Materials Compiled from 1,176 Detailed Household Schedule", p. 9.
45. For example, land rentals in Xinzhu were raised from 51 per cent of the year's crop to 58 per cent, and in Tainan from 46 per cent to 51 per cent. Hou Kunhong (ed.), Tudi gaige shiliao (Land Reform Data of Modern China) (Taipei: Historica Sinica, 1988), p. 404. Wu, The Land Problem in Taiwan, appendix p. 6, table 12.
46. For example, land rentals in Xinzhu were raised from 51 per cent of the year's crop to 58 per cent, and in Tainan from 46 per cent to 51 per cent. Hou Kunhong (ed.), Tudi gaige shiliao (Land Reform Data of Modern China) (Taipei: Historica Sinica, 1988), p. 404. Wu, The Land Problem in Taiwan, appendix p. 6, table 12.
47. For details of the process of forced grain selling, see Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 60-5.
48. Hou, Land Reform Data of Modern China, p. 366.
49. See Tu, Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism, pp. 412-64; and Zhao Wenshan, Taiwan "sanqiwu" dizu yundong de toushi (A Thorough Understanding of Taiwan's "Three-Seven-Five" Rent Reduction Movement) (Taipei: Ziyou Chubanshe, 1949), pp. 131-2.
50. See Tu, Taiwan under Japanese Imperialism, pp. 412-64; and Zhao Wenshan, Taiwan "sanqiwu" dizu yundong de toushi (A Thorough Understanding of Taiwan's "Three-Seven-Five" Rent Reduction Movement) (Taipei: Ziyou Chubanshe, 1949), pp. 131-2.
51. Zhao, Thorough Understanding, p. 132.
52. Deng Xuebing, Taiwan nongcun fangwen ji (Visiting Taiwan Peasant Villages) (Taipei: unknown publisher, 1954), p. 96.
53. Zhao, Thorough Understanding, p. 132.
54. Zhongguo Dizheng Yanjiusuo, Taiwan nongdi jianzu baogao (Report on Rent Reduction in Taiwan) (Taipei: Zhongguo Dizheng Yanjiusuo, 1951), p. 2.
55. Ibid., pp. 6-7.
56. Guomindang Zhongyang Gaizao Weiyuanhui Diliuzu, Taiwan nongjia jingji - dang de shehui diaocha, nongcun dianxing diaocha baogao (Peasant Economy in Taiwan - Social Survey of the Party, Report on a Typical Village) (Taipei: KMT, 1952), p. 17. This states: "farmers were afraid that usury is illegal so that they did not like to report. Every interviewer had a similar report. Their disguised reasons could be 'it's only a short-term turnover', 'it's not easy to report', or 'I am afraid it might affect my loan in the future'".
57. Zhongguo Dizheng Yanjiusuo, Report on Rent Reduction, p. 9.
58. This was recognized by the secretary of the Taiwan Zhangguan Gongshu, Ge Jingen, in his address to the Provincial Assembly in June 1946. Chen Xingtang (ed.), Taiwan "2.28" shijian dangan shiliao - Nanjing dier lishi dangan guancang (Documents of Taiwan "Uprising February 28" - From Nanjing Second Academia Historica) (Taipei: Renjian Chubanshe, 1992), pp. 78-88.
59. Xiao Shengtie, "Taiwan 228 Shijian de Jingji yu Wenhua Beijing - Shehui Qiwang Lilun zhi Yingyong" (Economic and Cultural Background of the Uprising February 28 in Taiwan - Application of Social Expectation Theory) in Ererba minjian yanjiu xiaozu (Folk Research Team on the Uprising of February 28), Ererba xueshu yantaohui lunwenji (Essays on the Uprising of February 28) (Taipei: Ererba minjian yanjiu xiaozu, taimei wenhua jiaoliu jijinhui, xiandai xueshu yanjiu jijinhu, 1992), p. 90.
60. Ibid., p. 93; Chen, Documents of Taiwan "Uprising February 28", p. 664.
61. Ibid., p. 93; Chen, Documents of Taiwan "Uprising February 28", p. 664.
62. Zhang Qin, "Taiwan Zhenxiang" (The Real Facts in Taiwan), in Chen, Documents of Taiwan "Uprising February 28", pp. 135-62.
63. Chen, Documents of Taiwan "Uprising February 28", p. 68.
64. Xiao, "Economic and Cultural Background of the Uprising February 28", p. 93.
65. In 1952 it was reported that the mining companies owed workers up to three months wages. Workers were given a "wage card" that could be reimbursed in the future. Most workers could not wait for their reimbursement and sold the card for cash at a value that was approximately 30 per cent lower. See Guomindang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui Sheji Kaohe Weiyuanhui (Scrutiny Committee in Central Committee, KMT), Taiwansheng changkuang laogong zhuangkuang kaocha naogao (Reports on Labourers' Conditions in the Mining and Manufacturing Industries of Taiwan Province) (Taipei: KMT, 1954).
66. Lin Shuzhi, Baise kongbu X dangan (The White Terror X Files) (Taipei: Qianwei Chubanshe, 1997); Lan Bozhou, Baise kongbu (The White Terror) (Taipei: Yangzhi Wenhua, 1993).
67. Lin Shuzhi, Baise kongbu X dangan (The White Terror X Files) (Taipei: Qianwei Chubanshe, 1997); Lan Bozhou, Baise kongbu (The White Terror) (Taipei: Yangzhi Wenhua, 1993).
68. A primary English-language source for this period is H. McClear Bate's Report From Formosa (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1952). Readers can also refer to Murray A. Rubinstein, The Protestant Community on Modern Taiwan (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), Ch. 1; Wang Chen-main, "A Bastion Created, A Regime Reformed, An Economy Reengineered, 1949-1970", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 320-38.
69. A primary English-language source for this period is H. McClear Bate's Report From Formosa (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1952). Readers can also refer to Murray A. Rubinstein, The Protestant Community on Modern Taiwan (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), Ch. 1; Wang Chen-main, "A Bastion Created, A Regime Reformed, An Economy Reengineered, 1949-1970", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 320-38.
70. A primary English-language source for this period is H. McClear Bate's Report From Formosa (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1952). Readers can also refer to Murray A. Rubinstein, The Protestant Community on Modern Taiwan (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), Ch. 1; Wang Chen-main, "A Bastion Created, A Regime Reformed, An Economy Reengineered, 1949-1970", in Murray A. Rubinstein (ed.), Taiwan: A New History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), pp. 320-38.
71. Tang Hui-sun, Land Reform in Free China (Taipei: Chinese-American Joint Commission on. Rural Reconstruction, 1954), pp. 80-1.
72. Ibid., pp. 69, 84. Taiwan's land is classified according to the fertility of the land, and is taxed accordingly.
73. Theodore Reynolds Smith, East Asian Agrarian Reform: Japan, Republic of Korea, Taiwan and the Philippines (Connecticut: John C. Lincoln Institute, unknown year, likely between 1967 and 1970), pp. 14-17.
74. A number of scholars have pointed out that the success of land reform in Taiwan was based on this military threat, especially after the massacre of 28 February 1947. The speaker of the Pingdong local parliament noted: "a driver in Taipei was sentenced to death because he caused a traffic accident. If a driver could be killed just because he violated a traffic law, we can imagine what the result would be if the landlords do not obey the law. Because landlords have the driver case in mind, the rent reduction program was implemented more easily". See Zhao, Thorough Understanding, p. 71.
75. Only a few academic papers discuss the social effects of land reform. The best materials are from the research reports of the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. See Arthur F. Raper, Taiwan zhi chengshi yu gongye (Urban and Industrial Taiwan: Crowded and Resourceful) (Taipei: U.S. Mutual Security Mission to China and National Taiwan University, 1954); E. Stuart Kirby, Jinbuzhong de Taiwan nongcun (Rural Progress in Taiwan) (Taipei: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, 1960); Arthur F. Raper, Taiwan muqian zhi nongcun wenti yu qi jianglai zhi zhanwang (Rural Taiwan-Problems and Promises) (Taipei: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, 1953).
76. Only a few academic papers discuss the social effects of land reform. The best materials are from the research reports of the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. See Arthur F. Raper, Taiwan zhi chengshi yu gongye (Urban and Industrial Taiwan: Crowded and Resourceful) (Taipei: U.S. Mutual Security Mission to China and National Taiwan University, 1954); E. Stuart Kirby, Jinbuzhong de Taiwan nongcun (Rural Progress in Taiwan) (Taipei: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, 1960); Arthur F. Raper, Taiwan muqian zhi nongcun wenti yu qi jianglai zhi zhanwang (Rural Taiwan-Problems and Promises) (Taipei: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, 1953).
77. Only a few academic papers discuss the social effects of land reform. The best materials are from the research reports of the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. See Arthur F. Raper, Taiwan zhi chengshi yu gongye (Urban and Industrial Taiwan: Crowded and Resourceful) (Taipei: U.S. Mutual Security Mission to China and National Taiwan University, 1954); E. Stuart Kirby, Jinbuzhong de Taiwan nongcun (Rural Progress in Taiwan) (Taipei: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, 1960); Arthur F. Raper, Taiwan muqian zhi nongcun wenti yu qi jianglai zhi zhanwang (Rural Taiwan-Problems and Promises) (Taipei: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, 1953).
78. For the details of the consolidation of the KMT's control in local politics, see Cheng Mingtong, Paixizhengzhi yu Taiwan zhengzhi bianqian (Factional Politics and the Development of Taiwan Politics) (Taipei: Yuedan Chubanshe, 1995), pp. 152-66.
79. Tang, Land Reform in Free China, p. 103.
80. Zhongguo Dizheng Yanjiusuo, Report on Rent Reduction in Taiwan, p. 7.
81. Zhao, Thorough Understanding, pp. 72-3.
82. Tang, Land Reform in Free China, pp. 50-6.
83. Mao Yugang, "Taiwan tudi gaige zhi jingji yanjiu" (Economic Research on Taiwan's Land Reform), in Yu Yuxian (ed.), Taiwan nongye fazhan lunwenji (Essays on Taiwan's Agricultural Development) (Taipei: Lianjing Publishing Co., 1975), p. 163, table 12. Calculations are based on land transactions in Xinzhu, Taizhong, Gaoxiong, Taidong, Hualian and Tainan.
84. Tang, Land Reform in Free China, pp. 62-3.
85. Calculated from Zhongguo Dizheng Yanjiusuo, Report on Rent Reduction in Taiwan, pp. 81-2, table 15.
86. Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, p. 82.
87. It was reported that some landlords wanted the government to buy the commodity bonds from them. They sold the commodity bonds for as low as 25 per cent of the market price of rice. Deng, Visiting Taiwan Peasant Villages, pp. 200, 223.
88. Reynolds Smith, East Asian Agrarian Reform, pp. 93, 96.
89. Yang, Socio-Economic Results of Land Reform, p. 238.
90. Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, p. 239.
91. Reynolds Smith, East Asian Agrarian Reform, p. 96.
92. Mao, Economic Research on Taiwan Land Reform, pp. 146, 162; Wolf Ladejinsky, "Agrarian Reform in Asia", Foreign Affairs, April 1964; Shirley Kuo, Gustav Ranis and John C. H. Fei, The Taiwan Success Story: Rapid Growth with Improved Distribution in the Republic of China, 1952-1979. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981).
93. Mao, Economic Research on Taiwan Land Reform, pp. 146, 162; Wolf Ladejinsky, "Agrarian Reform in Asia", Foreign Affairs, April 1964; Shirley Kuo, Gustav Ranis and John C. H. Fei, The Taiwan Success Story: Rapid Growth with Improved Distribution in the Republic of China, 1952-1979. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981).
94. Mao, Economic Research on Taiwan Land Reform, pp. 146, 162; Wolf Ladejinsky, "Agrarian Reform in Asia", Foreign Affairs, April 1964; Shirley Kuo, Gustav Ranis and John C. H. Fei, The Taiwan Success Story: Rapid Growth with Improved Distribution in the Republic of China, 1952-1979. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981).
95. A survey by Huang Dazhou found that 53 per cent of this investment was in businesses owned by landlords' children and 12 per cent in businesses owned by their brothers. See Huang Dazhou, "Taiwan nongdi gaige dui nongcun dizhu zhi yingxiang" (The Influence of Land Reform on Landlords), in Lee Teng-hui (ed.), Taiwan nongdi gaige dui xiangcun shehui zhi gongxiang (Contribution of Land Reform to Taiwan's Rural Areas), pp. 70-119.
96. Yang, Socio-Economic Results of Land Reform, pp. 244-5.
97. A document of the Ministry of Economic Affairs reported: "rich people felt depressed because they did not know how to use their capital. Depositing it in a bank secured little interest; loaning it as usury was too risky; stocking speculative commodities was illegal; running a business meant paying high taxes ... So the surplus capital in rural areas began to be used to buy land ... whose after-tax income was better than interest, and without any risk. The transfer of land became more frequent". Hou, Land Reform Data of Modern China, p. 744.
98. Zhongguo Dizheng Yanjiusuo, Report on Rent Reduction in Taiwan, p. 160.
99. Tang, Land Reform in Free China, pp. 105, 137.
100. Ibid., p. 137.
101. Bernard Gallin, Hsin Hsing, Taiwan: A Chinese Village in Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966).
102. Lee, Intersectoral Capital Flows, p. 83, table 49.
103. Kirby, Rural Progress in Taiwan, p. 75.
104. David Schak kindly supplied this research data.
105. Ryozaburo Minami (ed.), Taiwan no jinko to keizai (Population and Economy in Taiwan) (Tokyo: Ajia Keizai Kenkyusho, 1971), p. 92, table 6.
106. Liu, Analysis of Postwar Taiwan Economy, p. 353.
107. Ibid., p. 350, table 89.
108. Ryozaburo Minami (ed.), Population and Economy in Taiwan, p. 30, table 10.
109. Raper, Urban and Industrial Taiwan, pp. 121, 53.
110. Liu, Analysis of Postwar Taiwan Economy, p. 175, table 49; p. 189, table 57.
111. Liu, Analysis of Postwar Taiwan Economy, p. 175, table 49; p. 189, table 57.
112. The government also financed the budget deficit by increasing the money supply through the reform of the New Taiwan Dollar from 15 June 1949 to 1952. Inflation rose by 57 per cent in 1951 and 17 per cent in 1952. The arrival of US aid in 1952 relieved the pressure to issue more banknotes. See Wu Congmin, "Meiyuan yu Taiwan de jingji fazhan" (US Aid and Taiwan's Economic Development), in Taiwan shehui yanjiu jikan (Taiwan: A Radical Quarterly in Social Studies), Vol. 1, No. 1 (Taipei: Spring 1988), pp. 145-58. Proponents of the developmental state theory need to take this "irrational" developmental budget into account.
113. See Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, Tabular Materials Compiled from 1,176 Detailed Household Schedules (Taipei: unpublished manuscript, 1953), p. 4, table 1; p. 6.
114. Raper, Urban and Industrial Taiwan, p. 218.
115. Ibid., p. 215.
116. Ziyou Zhongguoshe, "Women de jingji" (Our Economic Situation), in Jinri de wenti (Problems Nowadays) (Taipei: Ziyou Zhongguoshe, 1958), pp. 48-9.
117. Hong-zen Wang, Zhanhou Taiwan siren duzhan ziben zhi fazhan (The Development of Private Monopoly Capital in Postwar Taiwan) (unpublished Masters thesis, National Taiwan University, 1988), p. 27.
118. Liu, Analysis of Postwar Taiwan Economy, p. 219.
119. These included the Zhongxing Textile Business Group, Yuandong Business Group, Hualong Business Group, Jiaxing Business Group, Guofeng Business Group and Pacific Business Group. See Wang, The Development of Private Monopoly Capital, p. 23; Hsiao Hsin-Huang Michael, "The Entrepreneurial Process of Taiwan's Small, Medium and Big Business", Zhongguo Shehui Xuekan (Chinese Sociology Journal), No. 16 (1992), pp. 139-68.
120. These included the Zhongxing Textile Business Group, Yuandong Business Group, Hualong Business Group, Jiaxing Business Group, Guofeng Business Group and Pacific Business Group. See Wang, The Development of Private Monopoly Capital, p. 23; Hsiao Hsin-Huang Michael, "The Entrepreneurial Process of Taiwan's Small, Medium and Big Business", Zhongguo Shehui Xuekan (Chinese Sociology Journal), No. 16 (1992), pp. 139-68.
121. Liu, Analysis of Taiwan's Postwar Economy, pp. 220, 372.
122. From my fieldwork interviews, conducted in 1992.
123. Raper, Urban and Industrial Taiwan, p. 49.
124. Gold, State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle, p. 70.
125. Yin Zhongrong, "Wo dui Taiwan jingji de kanfa" (My Opinion on the Taiwan Economy) (Taipei: self-published, 1954), p. 30.
126. Zhao Jichang, "Geguo zhongxiao qiye fuzhi cuoshi yu women nuli de fangxiang" (Small and Medium-sized Enterprise Support Policies in Different Countries and What We Should Do), in Zhao Jichang (ed), Geguo zhongxiao qiye fudao cuoshi (Small and Medium-sized Enterprise Support Policies in Different Countries) (Taipei: Guoji Jingji Ziliao Zhongxin, 1965), p. 11.
127. As the economic planner Yin Zhongrong noted, Taiwan's new stock market resembled the market in Shanghai before 1949: very few people participated in the stock market and the effect on savings and industrial capital was limited. Yin Zhongrong, "Dui Taiwan sheli zhengjuan jiaoyisuo zhi yijian" (Comments on the Establishment of Taiwan Stock Market), in his Wo dui Taiwan jingji de kanfa (My Opinions to Taiwan Economy) (Taipei: Economic Planning Board, Executive Yuan, 1961), Part 2, p. 25.
128. The Taiwan Provincial Government, "A Summary Report on the 1956 Census" (Taizhong: The Taiwan Provincial Government, 1957).
129. Raper, Urban and Industrial Taiwan, p. 124; Zhang Guowei, "Minguo sishiernian Taiwan geren suode fenpei zhi guji" (Estimation on Personal Income in 1953, Taiwan), in his Jiaoshou Zhang Guowei jingji lunwenji (Economic Essays by Professor Zhang Guowei) (Taipei: Chinese Culture University, 1980), pp. 45-85.
130. Raper, Urban and Industrial Taiwan, p. 124; Zhang Guowei, "Minguo sishiernian Taiwan geren suode fenpei zhi guji" (Estimation on Personal Income in 1953, Taiwan), in his Jiaoshou Zhang Guowei jingji lunwenji (Economic Essays by Professor Zhang Guowei) (Taipei: Chinese Culture University, 1980), pp. 45-85.
131. Raper, Urban and Industrial Taiwan, p. 145.
132. Calculated from Kadoo Hisanobu, "Taiwan no rodoryoku jinko" (The Labour Force in Taiwan), tables 7, 13, in Ryozaburo Minami (ed.), Taiwan no jinko to keizai (Population and Economy in Taiwan) (Tokyo: Ajia Keizai Kenkyusho, 1971), pp. 61-85.
133. Guomindang Zhongyang Gaizao Weiyuanhui, Peasant Economy in Taiwan - Social Survey of the Party, p. 24, tables 4-8.
134. Yang, Socio-Economic Results of Land Reform, p. 347.
135. Guomindang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui Sheji Kaohe Weiyuanhui, "Reports on Labourers' Conditions", pp. 17, 73-4, 137-8. For the textile and metal machinery industries, I take the median as the average income because different factories had different average wages. When converted to annual average incomes, these figures were close to those reported by Raper.
136. See Raper, Urban and Industrial Taiwan, pp. 17-18.
137. Ibid., p. 215.
138. Yang Feng, Taiwan guilai (Return from Taiwan) (Shanghai: Wenhui Newspaper, 4 March 1947), in Chen, Documents of the Taiwan February 28 Uprising, p. 113. The newspaper reports that the Taiwanese called people from the mainland "people from the fatherland" in 1945, but one year later called them "Chinese". After the military repression, they used a more discriminatory phrase, waisheng zhu (mainlander pig), to express their resentment.
139. A brief discussion of this reform is summarized by Jia-dong Shea, "The Liu-Tsiang Proposals for Economic Reform in Taiwan: A Retrospective", in Erik Thorbecke and Henry Wan (eds.), Taiwan's Development Experience: Lessons on the Roles of Government and Market (Boston/Dordrecht/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999), pp. 165-75.
140. Zhou Tiancheng, "Quanli bianchui de zhongxiao qiye" (Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Whose Power is Peripheral), in Longduan yu boxue - weixuan zuyi de zhengzhi jingji fenxi (Monopoly and Exploitation - The Political Economy of Authoritarian Rule) (Taipei: Taiwan Yanjiu Jijinhui, 1989), pp. 97-118.
141. Gwo-shyong Shieh, "Boss" Island: The Subcontracting Network and Microentrepreneurship in Taiwan's Development (New York: Peter Lang, 1992).
142. Hong-zen Wang, "Alternative Paths to Profit: The Financial Practices of Overseas Taiwanese Small- and Medium-Scale Enterprises", American Asian Review, Vol. 19, No. 3 (2001), pp. 168-9.
143. Susan Greenhalgh, "Networks and Their Nodes: Urban Society on Taiwan", The China Quarterly, No. 99 (September 1984), pp. 529-52; Hill Gates, "Ethnicity and Social Class", in Hill Gates and Emily M. Ahern (eds), The Anthropology of Taiwanese Society (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), pp. 241-81.
144. Susan Greenhalgh, "Networks and Their Nodes: Urban Society on Taiwan", The China Quarterly, No. 99 (September 1984), pp. 529-52; Hill Gates, "Ethnicity and Social Class", in Hill Gates and Emily M. Ahern (eds), The Anthropology of Taiwanese Society (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), pp. 241-81.