Analyzing child labor as a human rights issue: Its causes, aggravating policies, and alternative proposals

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 177-204

  Kabasakal Arat, Zehra F ^b  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHILD LABOR; HUMAN RIGHTS; POLICY STRATEGY; SOCIAL POLICY;

EID: 0036175641     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2002.0003     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Convention Fixing the Minimum Age for Admission of Children to Industrial Employment (ILO No. 5), adopted 28 Nov. 1919 (entered into force 13 June 1921), revised in 1937 by Convention No. 59 and in 1973 by Convention No. 138, art. 2, available on International Labour Organization 〈http://ilolex.ilo.ch:1567/scripts/convde.pl?C5〉 (visited 11 Nov. 2001).
2. Convention Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment (ILO No. 138), adopted 26 June 1973, entered into force 19 June 1976, art. 2, reprinted in INTERNATIONAL DOCUMENTS ON CHILDREN 355 (Geraldine Van Bueren ed., 2d ed. 1998).
3. See Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted 20 Nov. 1989, G.A. Res. 44/25, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 49, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989) (entered into force 2 Sept. 1990), reprinted in 28 I.L.M. 1448 (1989).
4. Cynthia Price Cohen et al., Monitoring the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: The Challenge of Information Management, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 439, 440 (1996). On the extensive use of reservations in ratification, see William A. Schabas, Reservations to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 472 (1996).
5. Cynthia Price Cohen et al., Monitoring the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: The Challenge of Information Management, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 439, 440 (1996). On the extensive use of reservations in ratification, see William A. Schabas, Reservations to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 472 (1996).
6. Convention on the Rights of the Child, supra note 3, art. 32.
7. Id. art. 3. Article 3 defines the worst forms of child labor as comprising: (a) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom, and forced labor or compulsory labor, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; (b) the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography, or for pornographic performance; (c) the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties; (d) work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety, or morals of children. Id. For a critique of this prioritization by the ILO, see David M. Smolin, Strategic Choices in the International Campaign Against Child Labor, 22 HUM. RTS. Q. 942 (2000).
8. See Charles Diamond & Tammy Fayed, Evidence on Substitutability of Adult and Child Labor, 34 J. DEV. STUD. 62 (1998) (for a brief review of the arguments about the impact of child labor on the adult labor market). Regarding the harm done to children, see Robert Weissman, Stolen Youth: Brutalized Children, Globalization and the Campaign to End Child Labor, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 10 (1997); Lee Tucker, Child Slaves in Modern India: The Bonded Labor Problem, 19 HUM. RTS. Q. 572 (1997); Myron E. Wegman, Foreign Aid, International Organizations, and the World's Children, 103 PEDIATRICS 646 (1999); ROGER SAWYER, CHILDREN ENSLAVED (1988).
9. See Charles Diamond & Tammy Fayed, Evidence on Substitutability of Adult and Child Labor, 34 J. DEV. STUD. 62 (1998) (for a brief review of the arguments about the impact of child labor on the adult labor market). Regarding the harm done to children, see Robert Weissman, Stolen Youth: Brutalized Children, Globalization and the Campaign to End Child Labor, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 10 (1997); Lee Tucker, Child Slaves in Modern India: The Bonded Labor Problem, 19 HUM. RTS. Q. 572 (1997); Myron E. Wegman, Foreign Aid, International Organizations, and the World's Children, 103 PEDIATRICS 646 (1999); ROGER SAWYER, CHILDREN ENSLAVED (1988).
10. See Charles Diamond & Tammy Fayed, Evidence on Substitutability of Adult and Child Labor, 34 J. DEV. STUD. 62 (1998) (for a brief review of the arguments about the impact of child labor on the adult labor market). Regarding the harm done to children, see Robert Weissman, Stolen Youth: Brutalized Children, Globalization and the Campaign to End Child Labor, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 10 (1997); Lee Tucker, Child Slaves in Modern India: The Bonded Labor Problem, 19 HUM. RTS. Q. 572 (1997); Myron E. Wegman, Foreign Aid, International Organizations, and the World's Children, 103 PEDIATRICS 646 (1999); ROGER SAWYER, CHILDREN ENSLAVED (1988).
11. See Charles Diamond & Tammy Fayed, Evidence on Substitutability of Adult and Child Labor, 34 J. DEV. STUD. 62 (1998) (for a brief review of the arguments about the impact of child labor on the adult labor market). Regarding the harm done to children, see Robert Weissman, Stolen Youth: Brutalized Children, Globalization and the Campaign to End Child Labor, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 10 (1997); Lee Tucker, Child Slaves in Modern India: The Bonded Labor Problem, 19 HUM. RTS. Q. 572 (1997); Myron E. Wegman, Foreign Aid, International Organizations, and the World's Children, 103 PEDIATRICS 646 (1999); ROGER SAWYER, CHILDREN ENSLAVED (1988).
12. See Charles Diamond & Tammy Fayed, Evidence on Substitutability of Adult and Child Labor, 34 J. DEV. STUD. 62 (1998) (for a brief review of the arguments about the impact of child labor on the adult labor market). Regarding the harm done to children, see Robert Weissman, Stolen Youth: Brutalized Children, Globalization and the Campaign to End Child Labor, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 10 (1997); Lee Tucker, Child Slaves in Modern India: The Bonded Labor Problem, 19 HUM. RTS. Q. 572 (1997); Myron E. Wegman, Foreign Aid, International Organizations, and the World's Children, 103 PEDIATRICS 646 (1999); ROGER SAWYER, CHILDREN ENSLAVED (1988).
13. UNICEF, THE STATE OF WORLD'S CHILDREN 1997, at 24-25 (1997) (regarding the developmental impacts of child labor); Erika de Wet, Labor Standards in the Globalized Economy: The Inclusion of a Social Clause in the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade/World Trade Organization, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 443 (1995).
14. UNICEF, THE STATE OF WORLD'S CHILDREN 1997, at 24-25 (1997) (regarding the developmental impacts of child labor); Erika de Wet, Labor Standards in the Globalized Economy: The Inclusion of a Social Clause in the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade/World Trade Organization, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 443 (1995).
15. ILO, CHILD LABOR: TARGETING THE INTOLERABLE: REPORT VI (1) OF THE INTERNATIONAL LABOR CONFERENCE, 86th Sess. (1998).
16. See id.
17. See Christian Huot, The Global Crisis of Child Labour, 32:6 CANADIAN DIMENSION 33 (1998).
18. Stacie Garnett, Taking Steps Against Child Labor, 217 DOLLARS & SENSE 6 (1998).
19. Huot, supra note 11, at 33.
20. According to the UN reports: The largest numbers of children workers are in Asia, where in some countries they make up more than 10% of the labour force. But there are also large numbers in Africa, where several countries are reported to have up to 20% of their children working. And in Latin America, more than a quarter of children in some countries are thought to be working. See UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1993, at 33 (1993).
21. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE SMALL HANDS OF SLAVERY: BONDED CHILD LABOR IN INDIA 122 (1996).
22. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; Tucker, supra note 7, at 572; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 24; Katherine Cox, The Inevitability of Nimble Fingers? Law, Development, and Child Labor, 32 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 115 (1999); Emad Mekay, A Story of Children and Cotton, MIDDLE EAST TIMES, 19 Oct. 1997, at 38-39; Lee Tucker & Arvind Ganesan, The Small Hands of Slavery: India's Bonded Child Laborers and the World Bank, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 17 (1997).
23. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; Tucker, supra note 7, at 572; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 24; Katherine Cox, The Inevitability of Nimble Fingers? Law, Development, and Child Labor, 32 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 115 (1999); Emad Mekay, A Story of Children and Cotton, MIDDLE EAST TIMES, 19 Oct. 1997, at 38-39; Lee Tucker & Arvind Ganesan, The Small Hands of Slavery: India's Bonded Child Laborers and the World Bank, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 17 (1997).
24. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; Tucker, supra note 7, at 572; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 24; Katherine Cox, The Inevitability of Nimble Fingers? Law, Development, and Child Labor, 32 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 115 (1999); Emad Mekay, A Story of Children and Cotton, MIDDLE EAST TIMES, 19 Oct. 1997, at 38-39; Lee Tucker & Arvind Ganesan, The Small Hands of Slavery: India's Bonded Child Laborers and the World Bank, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 17 (1997).
25. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; Tucker, supra note 7, at 572; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 24; Katherine Cox, The Inevitability of Nimble Fingers? Law, Development, and Child Labor, 32 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 115 (1999); Emad Mekay, A Story of Children and Cotton, MIDDLE EAST TIMES, 19 Oct. 1997, at 38-39; Lee Tucker & Arvind Ganesan, The Small Hands of Slavery: India's Bonded Child Laborers and the World Bank, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 17 (1997).
26. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; Tucker, supra note 7, at 572; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 24; Katherine Cox, The Inevitability of Nimble Fingers? Law, Development, and Child Labor, 32 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 115 (1999); Emad Mekay, A Story of Children and Cotton, MIDDLE EAST TIMES, 19 Oct. 1997, at 38-39; Lee Tucker & Arvind Ganesan, The Small Hands of Slavery: India's Bonded Child Laborers and the World Bank, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 17 (1997).
27. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; Tucker, supra note 7, at 572; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 24; Katherine Cox, The Inevitability of Nimble Fingers? Law, Development, and Child Labor, 32 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 115 (1999); Emad Mekay, A Story of Children and Cotton, MIDDLE EAST TIMES, 19 Oct. 1997, at 38-39; Lee Tucker & Arvind Ganesan, The Small Hands of Slavery: India's Bonded Child Laborers and the World Bank, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 17 (1997).
28. Sophie Boukhari, Child labour: a lesser evil?, UNESCO COURIER, May 1999, at 38; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 32-35, 43-45.
29. Sophie Boukhari, Child labour: a lesser evil?, UNESCO COURIER, May 1999, at 38; UNICEF, supra note 8, at 32-35, 43-45.
30. Boukhari, supra note 17, at 38.
31. CHILD LABOR: TARGETING THE INTOLERABLE, supra note 9.
32. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1993, supra note 14, at 33.
33. See Tucker, supra note 7, at 573; Weissman, supra note 7, at 11; HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 15, at 2; Cox, supra note 16, at 115.
34. See Tucker, supra note 7, at 573; Weissman, supra note 7, at 11; HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 15, at 2; Cox, supra note 16, at 115.
35. See Tucker, supra note 7, at 573; Weissman, supra note 7, at 11; HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 15, at 2; Cox, supra note 16, at 115.
36. See Tucker, supra note 7, at 573; Weissman, supra note 7, at 11; HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 15, at 2; Cox, supra note 16, at 115.
37. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 15, at 2 n.3.
38. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1993, supra note 14, at 33.
39. CHILD LABOR: TARGETING THE INTOLERABLE, supra note 9, at 12.
40. BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL LABOR AFFAIRS, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, FOREIGN LABOR TRENDS REPORT: INTERNATIONAL CHILD LABOR PROBLEMS 18 (1994).
41. See Tucker, supra note 7; HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 15, at 22; BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL LABOR AFFAIRS, supra note 25, at 18.
42. See Brent McClintock, The Multinational Corporations and Social Justice: Experiments in Supranational Governance, 57 REV. SOCIAL ECON. 507 (1999); Deborah Leipziger & Pia Sabharwal, Companies That Play Hide and Seek With Child Labor, 95 BUS. & SOC'Y REV. 11-13 (1995); S.L. Bachman, The Political Economy of Child Labor and Its Impacts on International Business, 35 BUS. ECON. 30 (2000). For a more optimistic view on the use of multinational codes of conduct to protect labor rights, see Deborah L. Spar, The Spotlight and the Bottom Line: How Multinationals Export Human Rights, 77 FOR. AFF. 7
43. See Brent McClintock, The Multinational Corporations and Social Justice: Experiments in Supranational Governance, 57 REV. SOCIAL ECON. 507 (1999); Deborah Leipziger & Pia Sabharwal, Companies That Play Hide and Seek With Child Labor, 95 BUS. & SOC'Y REV. 11-13 (1995); S.L. Bachman, The Political Economy of Child Labor and Its Impacts on International Business, 35 BUS. ECON. 30 (2000). For a more optimistic view on the use of multinational codes of conduct to protect labor rights, see Deborah L. Spar, The Spotlight and the Bottom Line: How Multinationals Export Human Rights, 77 FOR. AFF. 7
44. See Brent McClintock, The Multinational Corporations and Social Justice: Experiments in Supranational Governance, 57 REV. SOCIAL ECON. 507 (1999); Deborah Leipziger & Pia Sabharwal, Companies That Play Hide and Seek With Child Labor, 95 BUS. & SOC'Y REV. 11-13 (1995); S.L. Bachman, The Political Economy of Child Labor and Its Impacts on International Business, 35 BUS. ECON. 30 (2000). For a more optimistic view on the use of multinational codes of conduct to protect labor rights, see Deborah L. Spar, The Spotlight and the Bottom Line: How Multinationals Export Human Rights, 77 FOR. AFF. 7
45. See Brent McClintock, The Multinational Corporations and Social Justice: Experiments in Supranational Governance, 57 REV. SOCIAL ECON. 507 (1999); Deborah Leipziger & Pia Sabharwal, Companies That Play Hide and Seek With Child Labor, 95 BUS. & SOC'Y REV. 11-13 (1995); S.L. Bachman, The Political Economy of Child Labor and Its Impacts on International Business, 35 BUS. ECON. 30 (2000). For a more optimistic view on the use of multinational codes of conduct to protect labor rights, see Deborah L. Spar, The Spotlight and the Bottom Line: How Multinationals Export Human Rights, 77 FOR. AFF. 7
46. For a review of various micro- and macro-economic analyses of child labor practices, including parental and employer choices, see S.L. Bachman, A New Economics of Child Labor: Searching for Answers Behind the Headlines, 53 J. INT'L AFF. 545 (2000).
47. The reliance on the productive labor of non-elite children has been observed throughout the history. Elizabeth Ann Kuznesof, The Puzzling Contradictions of Child Labor, Unemployment, and Education in Brazil, 23 J. FAMILY HIST. 225, 226 (1998).
48. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 31.
49. See UNICEF, supra note 8, at 18.
50. Joan Aldous, The Political Process and the Failure of the Child Labor Amendment, 18 J. FAMILY Iss. 71, 72 (1997).
51. Kaushik Basu & Pham Hoang Van, The Economics of Child Labor, 88 AM. ECON. REV. 412 (1998).
52. See Harry Anthony Patrinos & George Psacharopoulos, Educational Performance and Child Labor in Paraguay, 15 INT'L J. EDUC. DEV. 47 (1995); Hideo Akabayashi & George Psacharopoulos, The Trade-off between Child Labour and Human Capital Formation: A Tanzanian Case Study, 35 J. DEV. STUD. 120 (1999).
53. See Harry Anthony Patrinos & George Psacharopoulos, Educational Performance and Child Labor in Paraguay, 15 INT'L J. EDUC. DEV. 47 (1995); Hideo Akabayashi & George Psacharopoulos, The Trade-off between Child Labour and Human Capital Formation: A Tanzanian Case Study, 35 J. DEV. STUD. 120 (1999).
54. See Bruce Wydick, The Effect of Microenterprise Lending on Child Schooling in Guatemala, 47 ECON. DEV. & CULTURAL CHANGE 853 (1999).
55. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 15, at 28-41, 118-44. The apathy and corruption among government officials, caste and class biases, obstruction by employers, lack of accountability, and the lack of adequate enforcement staff are listed as obstacles for enforcement.
56. Tucker, supra note 7, at 615.
57. Mekay, supra note 16, at 38-39.
58. See id.
59. Smolin, supra note 6, at 964.
60. CHILD LABOR: TARGETING THE INTOLERABLE, supra note 9; see also UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1999 (1999); UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000 (2000).
61. CHILD LABOR: TARGETING THE INTOLERABLE, supra note 9; see also UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1999 (1999); UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000 (2000).
62. CHILD LABOR: TARGETING THE INTOLERABLE, supra note 9; see also UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1999 (1999); UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000 (2000).
63. The United Nations reports that "at least 150 million of the world's workers were unemployed by the end of 1998." HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000, supra note 41.
64. Mekay, supra note 16, at 38.
65. Id.
66. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000, supra note 41, at 8.
67. Id.
68. Id.
69. CHILD LABOR: TARGETING THE INTOLERABLE, supra note 9.
70. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1999, supra note 41, at 130.
71. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 27.
72. Id. at 24.
73. See id.
74. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000, supra note 41, at 223-26.
75. See id. at 171.
76. Id.
77. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000, supra note 41, at 79.
78. MYRON WEINER, THE CHILD AND THE STATE IN INDIA: CHILD LABOR AND EDUCATION POLICY IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1991); International Bureau of Education, The Country Dossiers, available at 〈http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/Databanks/Dossiers/mainfram. htm〉 (visited 11 Nov. 2001).
79. MYRON WEINER, THE CHILD AND THE STATE IN INDIA: CHILD LABOR AND EDUCATION POLICY IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1991); International Bureau of Education, The Country Dossiers, available at 〈http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/Databanks/Dossiers/mainfram. htm〉 (visited 11 Nov. 2001).
80. See HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1999, supra note 41, at 22.
81. Id. at 179.
82. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 29.
83. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.M. Doc. A/CONF. 157/23 (12 July 1993).
84. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 28.
85. JEANNE VICKERS, WOMEN AND THE WORLD ECONOMIC CRISIS 22-30 (1991).
86. Vijay Prashad, Calloused Consciences: The Limited Challenge to Child Labor, 225 DOLLARS & SENSE 21-23 (1999).
87. Tucker & Ganesan, supra note 16, at 17-20.
88. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 28.
89. Id. at 29.
90. VICKERS, supra note 63, at 29.
91. Joseph Stiglitz, The Insider: What I learned at the world economic crisis, NEW REPUBLIC, 17 & 24 April 2000, at 56-60.
92. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1999, supra note 41, at 158.
93. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000, supra note 41, at 6.
94. THE WORLD BANK, WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000/2001: ATTACKING POVERTY 190 (2001).
95. UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT FUND FOR WOMEN, ANNUAL REPORT 1990 6 (1990).
96. The report also notes that a "study of worldwide income distribution among households shows a sharp rise in inequality - with the Gini coefficient deteriorating from 0.63 in 1988 to 0.66 in 1993," and "gaps between rich and poor are widening in many countries," industrial and developing. Id.
97. Stiglitz, supra note 69, at 57.
98. See annual reports by the World Bank, World Development Report; see especially the reports for the years 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000-2001, which focus on global poverty and poverty reduction efforts.
99. Weissman, supra note 7, at 14 (quoting Peter Fallon).
100. Tucker & Ganesan, supra note 16, at 19.
101. Id.
102. Id.
103. Id.
104. Prashad, supra note 64.
105. The IMF and the World Bank employ a "cookie-cutter approach" to economic stability, and require all loan applicants to implement essentially the same structural adjustment policies. These policies are supported and promoted by the US Treasury Department as well, and the Department has been influential in formulating the lending policies of the two international financial agencies. Since they are all located in Washington, D.C., the underlying economic philosophy of the structural adjustment policies is commonly referred to as "the Washington Consensus" by the critics. Although they all uphold the principles of neo-liberalism, the key players in these agencies may have some minor differences on the specifics. See Moisés Naím, Washington Consensus or Washington Confusion? 118 FOR. POL'Y 87 (2000).
106. Clifford Krauss, Argentine Leader Wins Reform of the Nation's Rigid Labor Code, N.Y. TIMES, 28 Apr. 2000, at A9.
107. See id.
108. For example, Sweden (85 percent), Iceland (78 percent), Denmark (73 percent), Finland (71 percent) and Norway (55 percent). See HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1993, supra note 14, at 43.
109. Id.
110. Id.
111. 89. Id.
112. Jay Mazur, Labor's New Internationalism, 79 FOR. AFF. 88, 90 (2000). The labor leaders in the US, however, have tried to achieve this through imposing trade bans and restrictions. This is a misguided strategy that will be discussed in the following pages.
113. See Erika de Wet, supra note 8, at 443 (for an overview of efforts to include a social clause in trade agreements); HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1993, supra note 14, at 85 (for a brief critical assessment of using trade sanctions as a way of improving labor rights).
114. See Erika de Wet, supra note 8, at 443 (for an overview of efforts to include a social clause in trade agreements); HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1993, supra note 14, at 85 (for a brief critical assessment of using trade sanctions as a way of improving labor rights).
115. Janet Hilowitz, Social labelling to combat child labour: Some considerations, 136 INT'L LAB. REV. 215, 231 (1997); Kaushik Basu, International Labor Standards and Child Labor, 42 CHALLENGE 80 (1999); McClintock, supra note 27; Leipziger & Sabharwal, supra note 27; Bachman, supra note 28.
116. Janet Hilowitz, Social labelling to combat child labour: Some considerations, 136 INT'L LAB. REV. 215, 231 (1997); Kaushik Basu, International Labor Standards and Child Labor, 42 CHALLENGE 80 (1999); McClintock, supra note 27; Leipziger & Sabharwal, supra note 27; Bachman, supra note 28.
117. Janet Hilowitz, Social labelling to combat child labour: Some considerations, 136 INT'L LAB. REV. 215, 231 (1997); Kaushik Basu, International Labor Standards and Child Labor, 42 CHALLENGE 80 (1999); McClintock, supra note 27; Leipziger & Sabharwal, supra note 27; Bachman, supra note 28.
118. Janet Hilowitz, Social labelling to combat child labour: Some considerations, 136 INT'L LAB. REV. 215, 231 (1997); Kaushik Basu, International Labor Standards and Child Labor, 42 CHALLENGE 80 (1999); McClintock, supra note 27; Leipziger & Sabharwal, supra note 27; Bachman, supra note 28.
119. Janet Hilowitz, Social labelling to combat child labour: Some considerations, 136 INT'L LAB. REV. 215, 231 (1997); Kaushik Basu, International Labor Standards and Child Labor, 42 CHALLENGE 80 (1999); McClintock, supra note 27; Leipziger & Sabharwal, supra note 27; Bachman, supra note 28.
120. See Table 1; Kebebew Ashagrie, Statistics on Working Children and Hazardous Child Labour in Brief (revised version) (1998), available on 〈http://www.ilo.org/public/english/comp/child/stat/stats.htm〉 (visited 11 Nov. 2001).
121. See Table 1; Kebebew Ashagrie, Statistics on Working Children and Hazardous Child Labour in Brief (revised version) (1998), available on 〈http://www.ilo.org/public/english/comp/child/stat/stats.htm〉 (visited 11 Nov. 2001).
122. These countries attracted also less than $3 billion in foreign direct investments in 1998. See HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000, supra note 41, at 9.
123. Id. at 4.
124. India probably has the greatest number of street children - New Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta are reported to have around 100,000 street children each - and the juvenile crime rate in India is reported as 3.1 per 1,000 people. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1993, supra note 14, at 24.
125. See Child Labor Deterrence Act, S.1551, 106th Cong. (1999) (most recent version).
126. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 23, 60; Mohammad Mafizur Rahman et al., Child Labor in Bangladesh: A Critical Appraisal of Harkin's Bill and the MOU-Type Schooling Program, 33 J. OF ECON. ISSUES 985 (1999); Bachman, supra note 28.
127. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 23, 60; Mohammad Mafizur Rahman et al., Child Labor in Bangladesh: A Critical Appraisal of Harkin's Bill and the MOU-Type Schooling Program, 33 J. OF ECON. ISSUES 985 (1999); Bachman, supra note 28.
128. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 23, 60; Mohammad Mafizur Rahman et al., Child Labor in Bangladesh: A Critical Appraisal of Harkin's Bill and the MOU-Type Schooling Program, 33 J. OF ECON. ISSUES 985 (1999); Bachman, supra note 28.
129. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 60.
130. Id.; Rahman, supra note 98, at 985.
131. Boukhari, supra note 17, at 38.
132. Id. at 38.
133. See UNICEF, supra note 8.
134. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 30-35. It should be added that many girls, throughout the world, do domestic labor for their own families in the form of field labor, cooking, cleaning, taking care of the younger siblings, and many other chores. Those girls who work outside home come back home to pick up household chores. In Guatemala, for example, girls spend an average of 21 hours a week on household duties on top of a 40-hour working week outside. See Global March Against Child Labour: Empowering the Girl Child, 23 WOMEN'S INT'L NETWORK NEWS 75 (1997).
135. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 55.
136. Battling Brazil's Child Labor Brutality: An interview with Oded Grajew, 18 MULTINAT'L MONITOR 20 (1997).
137. Id. at 21. Although some of her conclusions on the causal links between child labor and school enrollments are debatable, a survey of Kenyan households by Claudia Buchmann includes valuable information about the value of children's schooling. See Family Structure, Parental Perceptions and Child Labor in Kenya: What Factors Determine Who is Enrolled in School? 78 SOC. FORCES 1349 (2000).
138. From the report by the UN's Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), as posted by Stop-traffic list serve, available on 〈http://fpmail.friends-partners.org/pipermail/stop-traffic/1904-January/ 001100.html〉 (visited 15 Nov. 2001).
139. UNICEF, supra note 8, at 14.
140. See Prashad, supra note 64, at 21-23.
141. Basu and Van, supra note 33, at 425.
142. John Berlau, The Paradox of Child Labor Reform, INSIGHT ON THE NEWS, 24 Nov. 1997, at 20.
143. Id.
144. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; de Wet, supra note 8, at 443.
145. See Weissman, supra note 7, at 10; de Wet, supra note 8, at 443.
146. See International Child Labor Elimination Act of 1997, H.R. 2678, 105th Cong. (1997).
147. See Exec. Order No. 13,126, 64 Fed. Reg. 32,383, at Sec. 5 (12 June 1999).
148. Prashad, supra note 64, at 23.
149. World Development Report 2000-2001, THE WORLD BANK (2001).