Autotomy as a Prelude to Regeneration in Echinoderms

Microscopy Research and Technique

Volumn 55, Issue 6, 2001, Pages 369-396

  Wilkie, I C ^a  

^a GLASGOW CALEDONIAN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Functional morphology; Mechanical properties; Mutable collagenous tissue

Indexed keywords

BIOMECHANICS; MORPHOLOGY; TISSUE REGENERATION;

'CURRENT; ANIMAL BODY; BODY PARTS; CELLULAR EVENTS; COLLAGENOUS TISSUES; EXTERNAL FORCE; FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY; INTRINSIC MECHANISMS; MUTABLE COLLAGENOUS TISSUE; NATURAL POPULATION;

TENSILE STRENGTH;

ANIMALIA; ECHINODERMATA;

ANIMAL; ECHINODERM; HISTOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; REGENERATION; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ECHINODERMATA; REGENERATION;

EID: 0035895031     PISSN: 1059910X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jemt.1185     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Alibardi L. 1995. Muscle differentiation and morphogenesis in the regenerating tail of lizards. J Anat 186:143-151.
2. Alva V, Jangoux M. 1990. Fréquences et causes presumées de la régénération brachiale chez Amphipholis squamata (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea). In: De Ridder C, Dubois P, LaHaye MC, Jangoux M, editors. Echinoderm research. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 147-153.
3. Amemiya S, Oji T. 1992. Regeneration in sea lilies. Nature 357:546-547.
4. Arnold EN. 1984. Evolutionary aspects of tail shedding in lizards and their relatives. J Nat Hist 18:127-169.
5. Aronson RB. 1989. Brittlestar beds: low-predation anachronisms in the British Isles. Ecology 70:856-865.
6. Aronson RB. 1991. Predation, physical disturbance, and sublethal arm damage in ophiuroids: a Jurassic-Recent comparison. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 74:911-97.
7. Bai MM. 1971. Regeneration in the holothurian, Holothuria scabra Jaeger. Indian J Exp Biol 9:467-471.
8. Baiser EJ. 1998. Cloning by ophiuroid echinoderm larvae. Biol Bull 194:187-193.
9. Barker MF. 1977. Observations on the settlement of the brachiolaria larvae of Stichaster australis (Verrill) and Coscinasterias calamaria (Gray) (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) in the laboratory and on the shore. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 30:95-108.
10. Barker MF. 1978. Structure of the organs of attachment of brachiolaria larvae of Stichaster australis (Verrill) and Coscinasterias calamaria (Gray) (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 33:1-36.
11. Bickell-Page LR. 1989. Autotomy of cerata by the nudibranch Melibe leonina (Mollusca): ultrastructure of the autotomy plane and neural correlate of the behaviour. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 324:149-172.
12. Bickell-Page LR, Mackie GO. 1991. Tentacle autotomy in the hydromedusa Aglantha digitale (Cnidaria): an ultrastructural and neurophysiological analysis. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 331:155-170.
13. Bingham BL, Burr J, Wounded Head H. 2000. Causes and consequences of arm damage in the sea star Leptasterias hexactis. Can J Zool 78:596-605.
14. Bliss DE. 1960. Autotomy and regeneration. In: Waterman TH, editor. Physiology of Crustacea, vol. 1. New York: Academic Press. p 561-589.
15. Bosch I, Rivkin RB, Alexander SP. 1989. Asexual reproduction by oceanic planktotrophic echinoderm larvae. Nature 227:169-170.
16. Bowmer T, Keegan BF. 1983. Field survey of the occurrence and significance of regeneration in Amphiura filiformis (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from Galway Bay, west coast of Ireland. Mar Biol 74:65-71.
17. Byrne M. 1982. Functional morphology of a holothurian autotomy plane and its role in evisceration. In: Lawrence JM, editor. International echinoderms conference, Tampa Bay. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 65-68.
18. Byrne M. 1985a. Evisceration behaviour and the seasonal incidence of evisceration in the holothurian Eupentacta quinquesemita (Selenka). Ophelia 24:75-90.
19. Byrne M. 1985b. Ultrastructural changes in the autotomy tissues of Eupentacta quinquesemita (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) during evisceration. In: Keegan BF, O'Connor BDS, editors. Proceedings of the fifth international echinoderms conference, Galway. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 413-420.
20. Byrne M. 1985c. The mechanical properties of the autotomy tissues of the holothurian Eupentacta quinquesemita and the effects of certain physico-chemical agents. J Exp Biol 117:69-86.
21. Byrne M. 1986a. The case for seasonal evisceration in the holothuroid Eupentacta quinquesemita (Selenka): a reply to Fankboner and Cameron (1985). Can J Zool 64:2391-2392.
22. Byrne M. 1986b. Induction of evisceration in the holothurian Eupentacta quinquesemita and evidence for the existence of an endogenous evisceration factor. J Exp Biol 120:25-40.
23. Byrne M. 1994. Ophiuroidea. In: Harrison FW, Chia FS, editors. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, vol. 14: Echinodermata. Wiley-Liss, New York. p 247-343.
24. Byrne M. 2001. The morphology of autotomy structures in the sea cucumber Eupentacta quinquesemita before and during evisceration. J Exp Biol 204:849-863.
25. Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F. 1994. Mechanisms of arm regeneration in Antedon mediterranea (Echinodermata, Crinoidea). Anim Biol 3:83-88.
26. Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F. 1995. Arm regeneration and pattern formation in crinoids. In: Emson RH, Smith AB, Campbell AC, editors. Echinoderm research 1995. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 245-253.
27. Candia Carnevali MD, Lucca E, Bonasoro F. 1993. Mechanisms of arm regeneration in the feather star Antedon mediterranea: healing of wound and early stages of development. J Exp Zool 267:299-317.
28. Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F, Lucca E, Thorndyke MC. 1995. Pattern of cell proliferation in the early stages of arm regeneration in the feather star Antedon mediterranea. J Exp Zool 272: 464-474.
29. Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F, Patruno M, Thorndyke MC. 1998. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of arm regeneration in crinoid echinoderms: the potential of arm explants. Dev Genes Evol 208:421-430.
30. Chia FS. 1970. Histology of the globiferous pedicellariae of Psam-mechinus miliaris (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). J Zool Lond 160: 9-16.
31. Clark AH. 1921. A monograph of the existing crinoids, vol. 1. Part 2. Smithsonian Institution. United States National Museum Bulletin 82:1-481.
32. Clark ME, Clark RB. 1965. Growth and regeneration in Nephtys. Zool Jb Physiol Bd 70:24-90.
33. Clements LAJ, Bell SS, Kurdziel JP. 1994. Abundance and arm loss of the infaunal brittlestar Ophiophragmus filograneus (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea), with an experimental determination of regeneration rates in natural and planted seagrass beds. Mar Biol 121:97-104.
34. David B, Néraudeau D. 1989. Tubercle loss in spatangoids (Echinodermata, Echinoides): original skeletal structures and underlying processes. Zoomorphology 109:39-53.
35. Dawbin WH. 1949. Auto-evisceration and the regeneration of the viscera in the holothurian Stichopus mollis (Hutton). Trans R Soc NZ 77:497-523.
36. Dawydoff C. 1901. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Regenerationserscheinungen bei den Ophiuren. Z wiss Zool 69:202-234.
37. Del Castillo J, Smith DS. 1996. We still invoke friction and Occam's razor to explain catch in the spines of Eucidaris tribuloides. Biol Bull 190:243-244.
38. Del Castillo J, Smith DS, Vidai AM, Sierra C. 1995. Catch in the primary spines of the sea urchin Eucidaris tribuloides: a brief review and a new interpretation. Biol Bull 188:120-127.
39. Dobson WE. 1985. A pharmacological study of neural mediation of disc autotomy in Ophiophragmus filograneus (Lyman) (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 94:223-232.
40. Dobson WE, Turner RL. 1989. Morphology and histology of the disc autotomy plane in Ophiophragmus filograneus (Echinodermata, Ophiuroida). Zoomorphology 108:323-332.
41. Dolmatov IY. 1996. Asexual reproduction, evisceration, and regeneration in holothurians. Russ J Dev Biol 27:211-219.
42. Donovan SK. 1984. Stem morphology of the Recent crinoid Chladocrinus (Neocrinus) decorus. Palaeontology 27:825-841.
43. Donovan SK. 1998. Survival of crinoid stalk fragments and its taphonomic implications: discussion. Palaeont Res 2:283-284.
44. Dotan A, Fishelson L. 1985. Morphology of the spines of Heterocentrotus mammilatus (Echinodermata, Echinoidea) and its ecological significance. In: Keegan BF, O'Connor BDS, editors. Proceedings of the fifth international echinoderms conference, Galway. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 253-260.
45. Dubois P, Ghyoot M. 1995. Integumentary resorption and collagen synthesis during regression of headless pedicellariae in Sphaerechinus granularis (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). Cell Tissue Res 282: 297-309.
46. Dubois P, Ghyoot M, Bureau F. 1994. Induction of tissue resorption in globiferous pedicellariae of the echinoid Sphaerechinus granularis. In: David B, Guille A, Féral JP, Roux M, editors. Echinoderms through time. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 643-646.
47. Dupont S, Vangeluwe D, Mallefet J. 2001. Arm regeneration in the luminous ophiuroid Amphipholis squamata: a functional approach. In: Barker MF, editor. Echinoderms 2000. Rotterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger (in press).
48. Ebert TA. 1968. Growth rates of the sea urchin Stronglyocentrotus purpuratus related to food availability and spine abrasion. Ecology 49:1075-1091.
49. Edmondson CH. 1935. Autotomy and regeneration in Hawaiian star-fishes. Occ Pap Bernice P Bishop Mus 11:1-29.
50. Elphick MR, Melarange R. 2001. Neural control of muscle relaxation in echinoderms. J Exp Biol 204:875-885.
51. Emson RH, Tanti KT. 1998. Pedicellarial regeneration pattern in Psammechinus miliaris: random or predictable? In: Mooi R, Telford M, editors. Echinoderms: San Francisco. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 645.
52. Emson RH, Wilkie IC. 1980. Fission and autotomy in echinoderms. Oceanogr Mar Biol Annu Rev 18:155-250.
53. Fankboner PV, Cameron JL. 1985. Seasonal atrophy of the visceral organs in a sea cucumber. Can J Zool 63:2888-2892.
54. Fredericq L. 1883. Sur l'autotomie ou mutilation par voie réflexe comme moyen de défense chez les animaux. Archs Zool Exp Gén 1:413-426.
55. Fujita T, Ohta S, Oji T. 1987. Photographic observations of the stalked crinoid Metacrinus rotundus Carpenter in Suruga Bay, Central Japan. J Oceanogr Soc Jpn 43:333-343.
56. García-Arrarás JE, Estrada-Rogers L, Santiago R, Torres II, Díaz-Miranda L, Torres-Avillán I. 1998. Cellular mechanisms of intestine regeneration in the sea cucumber, Holothuria glaberrima Selenka (Holothuroidea: Echinodermata). J Exp Zool 281:288-304.
57. García-Arrarás JE, Díaz-Miranda L, Torres II, File S, Jiménez LB, Rivera-Bermudez K, Arroyo EJ, Cruz W. 1999. Regeneration of the enteric nervous system in the sea cucumber Holothuria glaberrima. J Comp Neurol 406:461-475.
58. Ghiradella HT. 1965. The reactions of two starfishes, Patiria miniata and Asterias forbesi, to foreign tissue in the coelom. Biol Bull 128:77-89.
59. Gibson AW, Burke RD. 1983. Gut regeneration by morphallaxis in the sea cucumber Leptosynapta clarki (Heding, 1928). Can J Zool 61: 2720-2732.
60. Goss RJ. 1969. Principles of regeneration. New York: Academic Press.
61. Goss RJ. 1992. The evolution of regeneration: adaptive or inherent? J Theor Biol 159:241-260.
62. Gould SJ, Vrba ES. 1982. Exaptation - a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4-15.
63. Grimmer JC, Holland ND, Kubota H. 1984. The fine structure of the stalk of the pentacrinoid larva of a feather star, Comanthus japonica (Echinodermata: Crinoidea). Acta Zool (Stockh) 65:41-58.
64. Grimmer JC, Holland ND, Hayami I. 1985. Fine structure of the stalk of an isocrinid sea lily (Metacrinus rotundus) (Echinodermata, Crinoidea). Zoomorphologie 105:39-50.
65. Heinzeller T, Welsch U. 1994. Crinoidea. In: Harrison FW, Chia FS, editors. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, vol. 14: Echinodermata. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 9-148.
66. Hilgers H, Splechtna H. 1982. Zur Steuerung der Ablösung von Gift-pedizellarien bei Sphaerechinus granularis (Lam.) und Paracentrotus lividus (Lam.) (Echinodermata, Echinoidea). Zool Jb Anat 107: 442-457.
67. Hodgson AN. 1984. Use of the intrinsic musculature for siphonal autotomy in the Solenacea (Mollusca: Bivalvia). Trans R Soc S Afr 45:129-137.
68. Holland ND, Grimmer JC. 1981. Fine structure of syzygial articulations before and after arm autotomy in Florometra serratissima (Echinodermata: Crinoidea). Zoomorphology 98:169-183.
69. Holland LZ, Holland ND. 1975. The fine structure of epidermal glands of regenerating and mature globiferous pedicellariae of a sea urchin (Lytechinus pictus). Tissue Cell 7:723-737.
70. Hopkins TS, Watts SA, McClintock JB, Marion KR. 1994. Contrasting size demographics, sub-lethal arm loss and arm regeneration in two populations of Astropecten articulatus (Say) in the northern Gulf of Mexico. In: David B, Guille A, Féral JP, Roux M, editors. Echinoderms through time. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 311-316.
71. Hornyold AG. 1910. Über die Funktion und Autotomie der gemmiformen (globiferen) Pedicellarien. Biol Centralbl 30:349-352.
72. Hotchkiss FHC, Churchill SE, Gelormini RG, Hepp WR, Rentler RJ, Tummarello MT. 1991. Events of autotomy in the starfish Asterias forbesi and A. vulgaris. In: Yanagisawa T, Yasumasu I, Oguro C, Suzuki N, Motokawa T, editors. Biology of Echinodermata. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 537-541.
73. Jamison JP. 1964. Regeneration subsequent to intervertebral amputation in lizards. Herpetologica 20:145-149.
74. Jespersen A, Lützen J. 1971. On the ecology of the aspidochirote sea cucumber Stichopus tremulus (Gunnerus). Norw J Zool 19:117-132.
75. Kauppila T. 1998. Correlation between autotomy-behavior and current theories of neuropathic pain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 23:111-129.
76. Kennedy B, Kryvi H. 1980. Autotomy in a polychaete: abscission zone at the base of the tentacular crown of Sabella penicillis. Zoomorphology 96:33-43.
77. Kimura S, Omura Y, Ishida M, Shirai H. 1993. Molecular characterization of fibrillar collagen from the body wall of starfish Asterias amurensis. Comp Biochem Physiol 104B:663-668.
78. King HD. 1898. Regeneration in Asterias vulgaris. W Roux Arch Entw Org 17:351-363.
79. Koob TJ, Koob-Emunds MM, Trotter JA. 1999. Cell-derived stiffening and plasticizing factors in sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) dermis. J Exp Biol 202:2291-2301.
80. Kress A. 1968. Untersuchungen zur Histologie, Autotomie und Regeneration dreier Doto-Arten Doto coronata, D. pinnatifida, D. fragilis (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchiata). Rev Suisse Zool 75:235-303.
81. LaHaye MC, Jangoux M. 1987. The skeleton of the stalked stages of the comatulid crinoid Antedon bifida (Echinodermata). Zoomorphology 107:58-65.
82. Lawrence JM. 1987. A functional biology of echinoderms. London: Croom Helm.
83. Lawrence JM. 1992. Arm loss and regeneration in Asteroidea (Echinodermata). In: Scalera-Liaci L, Canicattì C, editors. Echinoderm research 1991. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 39-52.
84. Lawrence JM, Byrne M, Harris L, Keegan B, Freeman S, Cowell BC. 1999. Sublethal arm loss in Asterias amurensis, A. rubens, A. vulgaris, and A. forbesi (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). Vie Milieu 49: 69-73.
85. Lison L. 1930. Recherches histophysiologiques sur les amibocytes des échinodermes. Arch Biol 40:175-203.
86. Litvinova NM, Zharkova IS. 1977. Autotomy and regeneration in Amphipholis kochii. Zool Zh 56:1320-1327.
87. Märkel K, Röser U. 1983. Calcite resorption in the spine of the echinoid Eucidaris tribuloides. Zoomorphology 103:43-58.
88. Marrs J, Wilkie IC, Sköld M, Maclaren WM, McKenzie JD. 2000. Size-related aspects of arm damage, tissue mechanics, and autotomy in the starfish Asterias rubens. Mar Biol 137:59-70.
89. Mathews LM, McKnight AE, Avery R, Lee KT. 1999. Incidence of autotomy in New England populations of green crabs, Carcinus maenas, and an examination of the effect of claw autotomy on diet. J Crust Biol 19:713-719.
90. Mazzone F, Byrne M. 2001. The haemal sinus - a possible conduit for migratory cells involved in repair and regeneration of the radial nerve cord of Coscinasterias muricata following autotomy. In: Barker MF, editor. Echinoderms 2000. Rotterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger (in press).
91. McVean AR. 1973. Autotomy in Carcinus maenas (Decapoda: Crustacea). J Zool Lond 169:349-364.
92. McVean AR. 1976. The incidence of autotomy in Carcinus maenas (L.). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 24:177-187.
93. McVean AR, Findlay I. 1979. The incidence of autotomy in an estuarine population of the crab Carcinus maenas. J Mar Biol Ass UK 59:341-354.
94. Menge JL, Menge BA. 1974. Role of resource allocation, aggression and spatial heterogeneity in coexistence of two competing intertidal starfish. Ecol Monogr 44:189-209.
95. Meyer DL. 1985. Evolutionary implications of predation on Recent comatulid crinoids from the Great Barrier Reef. Paleobiology 11: 154-164.
96. Meyer DL. 1988. Crinoids as renewable resource: rapid regeneration of the visceral mass in a tropical reef-dwelling crinoid from Australia. In: Burke RD, Mladenov PV, Lambert P, Parsley RL, editors. Echinoderm biology. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 519-522.
97. Miller JA, Byrne M. 2000. Ceratal autotomy and regeneration in the aeolid nudibranch Phidiana crassicornis and the role of predators. Invert Biol 119:167-176.
98. Mladenov PV. 1983. Rate of arm regeneration and potential causes of arm loss in the feather star Florometra serratissima (Echinodermata: Crinoidea). Can J Zool 61:2873-2879.
99. Mladenov PV, Burke RD. 1994. Echinodermata: asexual propagation. In: Adiyodi KG, Adiyodi RG, editors. Reproductive biology of invertebrates, vol. VI part B. Asexual propagation and reproductive strategies. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. p 339-383.
100. Mladenov PV, Bisgrove B, Asotra S, Burke RD. 1989. Mechanisms of arm-tip regeneration in the sea star, Leptasterias hexactis. Roux's Arch Dev Biol 198:19-28.
101. Morgulis S. 1909. Regeneration in the brittle-star Ophiocoma pumila, with reference to the influence of the nervous system. Proc Am Acad Sci 44:655-659.
102. Moss C, Hunter JA, Thorndyke MC. 1998. Patterns of bromodeoxyuridine incorporation and neuropeptide immunoreactivity during arm regeneration in the starfish Asterias rubens. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 353:421-436.
103. Motokawa T. 1982. Rapid change in mechanical properties of echinoderm connective tissues caused by coelomic fluid. Comp Biochem Physiol 73C:223-229.
104. Motokawa T. 1983. Mechanical properties and structure of the spine-joint central ligament of the sea-urchin, Diadema setosum (Echinodermata, Echinoidea). J Zool Lond 201:223-235.
105. Motokawa T. 1986. Morphology of spines and spine joint in the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata, Asteroida). Zoomorphology 106:247-253.
106. Munday BW. 1993. Field survey of the occurrence and significance of regeneration in Amphiura chiajei (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from Killary Harbor, west coast of Ireland. Mar Biol 115:661-668.
107. Needham AE. 1947. Local factors and regeneration in Crustacea. J Exp Biol 24:220-226.
108. Needham AE. 1953. The incidence and adaptive value of autotomy and regeneration in Crustacea. Proc Zool Soc Lond 123:111-122.
109. Nicolas MT. 1977. Bioluminescence des élytres d'Acholoe. V. Les principales étapes de la régénération. Arch Zool Exp Gén 118:103-120.
110. Oji T, Amemiya S. 1998. Survival of crinoid stalk fragments and its taphonomic implications. Paleontol Res 2:67-70.
111. Oji T, Okamoto T. 1994. Arm autotomy and arm branching pattern as anti-predatory adaptations in stalked and stalkless crinoids. Paleobiology 20:27-39.
112. Patruno M, Beesley P, Thorndyke MC, Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F. 1999. Stress and regeneration in crinoids and asteroids. In: Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F, editors. Echinoderm research 1998. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 153-156.
113. Pérez-Mellado V, Corti C, Lo Cascio P. 1997. Tail autotomy and extinction in Mediterranean lizards. A preliminary study of continental and insular populations. J Zool Lond. 243:533-541.
114. Ramsay RE, Campbell AC. 1985. An investigation of the distribution of pedicellariae in Echinus esculentus (L.). In: Keegan BF, O'Connor BDS, editors. Proceedings of the fifth international echinoderms conference, Galway. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 315-320.
115. Ramsay K, Turner JR, Vize SJ, Richardson CA. 2000. A link between predator density and arm loss in the starfish Marthasterias glacialis and Asterias rubens. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 80:565-566.
116. Ramsay K, Bergmann M, Veale LO, Richardson CA, Kaiser MJ, Vize SJ, Feist SW. 2001. Damage, autotomy and arm regeneration in starfish caught by towed demersal fishing gears. Mar Biol 138:527-536.
117. Robinson MH, Abele LG, Robinson B. 1970. Attack autotomy: a defense against predators. Science 169:300-301.
118. Robinson JV, Shaffer LR, Hagemeier DD, Smatresk NJ. 1991. The ecological role of caudal lamellae loss in the larval damselfly, Ischnura posita (Hagen) (Odonata: Zygoptera). Oecologia 87:1-7.
119. Roux M. 1976. Aspects de la variabilité et de la croissance au sein d'une population de la pentacrine actuelle: Annacrinus wyville thomsoni Jeffreys (Crinoidea). Thalass Jugosl 12:307-320.
120. Shadwick RE, Pollock C. 1988. Dynamic mechanical properties of sea urchin spine ligaments. In: Burke RD, Mladenov PV, Lambert P, Parsley RL, editors. Echinoderm biology. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 635-640.
121. Sheppard L, Bellairs AA. 1972. The mechanism of autotomy in Lacerta. Br J Herpetol 4:276-286.
122. Sides EM. 1987. An experimental study of the use of arm regeneration in estimating rates of sublethal injury on brittle-stars. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 106:1-16.
123. Silver H. 1985. Histology of the autotomy region in the esophagus of Holothuria scabra Jaeger. In: Keegan BF, O'Connor BDS, editors. Proceedings of the fifth international echinoderms conference, Galway. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 451-457.
124. Sköld M, Rosenberg R. 1996. Arm regeneration frequency in eight species of Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) from European sea areas. J Sea Res 35:353-362.
125. Smith GN. 1971a. Regeneration in the sea cucumber Leptosynapta. I. The process of regeneration. J Exp Zool 177:319-330.
126. Smith GN. 1971b. Regeneration in the sea cucumber Leptosynapta. II. The regenerative capacity. J Exp Zool 177:331-342.
127. Smith LD, Hines AH. 1991. Autotomy in blue crab (Callinectes sapidus Rathbun) populations: geographic, temporal, and ontogenetic variation. Biol Bull 180:416-431.
128. Smith DF, Meyer DL, Horner SMJ. 1981. Amino acid uptake by the comatulid crinoid Cenometra bella (Echinodermata) following evisceration. Mar Biol 61:207-213.
129. Smith DS, Wainwright SA, Baker J, Cayer ML. 1981. Structural features associated with movement and 'catch' of sea-urchin spines. Tissue Cell 13:299-320.
130. Soong K, Shen Y, Tseng SH, Chen CP. 1997. Regeneration and potential functional differentiation of arms in the brittlestar, Ophiocoma scolopendrina (Lamarck) (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea). Zool Stud 36:90-97.
131. Souter DW, Cameron AM, Endean R. 1997. Implications of sublethal predation, autotomy and regeneration: pigment bands on their spines can not be used to determine the ages of adult specimens of the corallivore Acanthaster planci. Mar Freshwater Res 48:321-328.
132. Stancyk SE, Golde HM, Pape-Lindstrom PA, Dobson WE. 1994. Born to lose. I. Measures of tissue loss and regeneration by the brittlestar Microphiopholls gracillima (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea). Mar Biol 118:451-462.
133. Stauber M, Märkel K. 1988. Comparative morphology of muscle-skeleton attachments in the Echinodermata. Zoomorphology 108: 137-148.
134. Stewart B. 1996. Sub-lethal predation and rate of regeneration in the euryalinid snake star Astrobrachion constrictum (Echinodermata, Ophiuroidea) in a New Zealand fiord. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 199:269-283.
135. Stewart B. 2000. Anatomical features of the euryalid snake star Astrobrachion constrictum (Ophiuroidea: Asteroschematidae). Invert Biol 119:222-233.
136. Szulgit GK, Shadwick RE. 1994. The effects of calcium chelation and cell perforation on the mechanical properties of sea urchin ligaments. In: David B, Guille A, Féral JP, Roux M, editors. Echinoderms through time. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 887-892.
137. Szulgit GK, Shadwick RE. 2000. Dynamic mechanical characterization of mutable collagenous tissue: response of sea cucumber dermis to cell lysis and dermal extracts. J Exp Biol 203:1539-1550.
138. Teytaud AR. 1971. Food habits of the goby, Ginsburgellus novemlineatus, and the clingfish, Arcos rubiginosus, associated with echinoids in the Virgin Islands. Carib J Sci 11:41-45.
139. Thorndyke MC, Patruno M, Moss C, Beesley PW, Mallefet J. 2001. Cellular and molecular bases of arm regeneration in brittlestars. In: Barker MF, editor. Echinoderms 2000. Rotterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger (in press).
140. Thurmond FA, Trotter JA. 1996. Morphology and biomechanics of the microfibrillar network of sea cucumber dermis. J Exp Biol 199: 1817-1828.
141. Tracey DJ. 1972. Evisceration and regeneration in Thyone okeni (Bell, 1884). Proc Linn Soc NSW 97:72-81.
142. Trotter JA. 2000. Echinoderm collagenous tissues: smart biomaterials with dynamically controlled stiffness. Comp Biochem Physiol 126B: S95.
143. Trotter JA, Koob TJ. 1994. Biochemical characterization of fibrillar collagen from the mutable spine ligament of the sea-urchin Eucidaris tribuloides. Comp Biochem Physiol 1078:125-134.
144. Trotter JA, Koob TJ. 1995. Evidence that calcium-dependent cellular processes are involved in the stiffening response of holothurian dermis and that dermal cells contain an organic stiffening factor. J Exp Biol 198:1951-1961.
145. Trotter JA, Lyons-Levy G, Thurmond FA, Koob TJ. 1995. Covalent composition of collagen fibrils from the dermis of the sea cucumber, Cucumaria frondosa, a tissue with mutable mechanical properties. Comp Biochem Physiol 112A:463-478.
146. Turner RL, Heatwole DW, Stancyk SE. 1982. Ophiuroid discs in stingray stomachs: evasive autotomy or partial consumption of prey? In: Lawrence JM, editor. International echinoderms conference, Tampa Bay. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 331-335.
147. VandenSpiegel D, Jangoux M. 1987. Cuvierian tubules of the holothuroid Holothuria forskali (Echinodermata): a morphofunctional study. Mar Biol 96:263-275.
148. VandenSpiegel D, Jangoux M, Flammang P. 2000. Maintaining the line of defense: regeneration of Cuvierian tubules in the sea cucumber Holothuria forskali (Echinodermata, Holothuroidea). Biol Bull 198:34-49.
149. Vidal AM, del Castillo J, Smith DS. 1993. Contractile properties of the articular capsule or ligament, in the primary spines of the sea urchin Eucidaris tribuloides. Comp Biochem Physiol 106C:643-647.
150. Wake DB, Dresner IG. 1967. Functional morphology and evolution of tail autotomy in salamanders. J Morphol 122:265-306.
151. Wall PD, Devor M, Inbal R, Scadding JW, Schonfeld D, Seltzer Z, Tomkiewicz MM. 1979. Autotomy following peripheral nerve lesions: experimental anaesthesia dolorosa. Pain 7:103-113.
152. Wilkie IC. 1978a. Functional morphology of the autotomy plane of the brittlestar Ophiocomina nigra (Abildgaard) (Ophiuroidea, Echinodermata). Zoomorphologie 91:289-305.
153. Wilkie IC. 1978b. Arm autotomy in brittlestars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea). J Zool Lond 186:311-330.
154. Wilkie IC. 1979. The juxtaligamental cells of Ophiocomina nigra (Abildgaard) (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) and their possible role in mechano-effector function of collagenous tissue. Cell Tissue Res 197:515-530.
155. Wilkie IC. 1984. Variable tensility in echinoderm collagenous tissues: a review. Mar Behav Physiol 11:1-34.
156. Wilkie IC. 1988. Design for disaster: the ophiuroid intervertebral ligament as a typical mutable collagenous structure. In: Burke RD, Mladenov PV, Lambert P, Parsley RL, editors. Echinoderm biology. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 25-38.
157. Wilkie IC. 1992. Variable tensility of the oral arm plate ligaments of the brittlestar Ophiura ophiura (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea). J Zool Lond 228:5-26.
158. Wilkie IC. 1996a. Mutable collagenous tissues: extracellular matrix as mechano-effector. In: Jangoux M, Lawrence JM, editors. Echinoderm studies, vol. B. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 61-102.
159. Wilkie IC. 1996b. Mutable collagenous structure or not? A comment on the reinterpretation by Del Castillo et al. of the catch mechanism in the sea-urchin spine ligament. Biol Bull 190:237-242.
160. Wilkie IC, Emson RH. 1987. The tendons of Ophiocomina nigra and their role in autotomy (Echinodermata, Ophiuroida). Zoomorphology 107:33-44.
161. Wilkie IC, Emson RH. 1988. Mutable collagenous tissues and their significance for echinoderm palaeontology and phylogeny. In: Paul CRC, Smith AB, editors. Echinoderm phylogeny and evolutionary biology. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p 311-330.
162. Wilkie IC, Griffiths GVR, Glennie SF. 1990. Morphological and physiological aspects of the autotomy plane in the aboral integument of Asterias rubens L. (Echinodermata). In: De Ridder C, Dubois P, LaHaye MC, Jangoux M, editors. Echinoderm research. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 301-313.
163. Wilkie IC, Emson RH, Young CM. 1993. Smart collagen in sea lilies. Nature 366:519-520.
164. Wilkie IC, Emson RH, Young CM. 1994. Variable tensility of the ligaments in the stalk of a sea-lily. Comp Biochem Physiol 109A: 633-641.
165. Wilkie IC, Emson RH, Mladenov PV. 1995. Autotomy mechanism and its control in the starfish Pycnopodia helianthoides. In: Emson RH, Smith AB, Campbell AC, editors. Echinoderm research 1995. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 137-146.
166. Wilkie IC, Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F. 1999. Evidence for the 'cellular calcium regulation hypothesis' from 'simple' mutable collagenous structures: the brachial and cirral syzygial ligaments of Antedon mediterranea (Lam.). In: Candia Carnevali MD, Bonasoro F, editors. Echinoderm research 1998. Rotterdam: Balkema. p 119-125.