"Professionalization" and "confessionalization": The place of physics, philosophy, and arts instruction at central European academic institutions during the reformation era

Early Science and Medicine

Volumn 6, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 334-352

  Freedman, Joseph S ^a  

^a ALABAMA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EUROPE; HISTORY; PHILOSOPHY; PHYSICS; UNIVERSITY;

EUROPE; HISTORY, EARLY MODERN 1451-1600; PHILOSOPHY; PHYSICS; UNIVERSITIES;

EID: 0035747733     PISSN: 13837427     EISSN: 15733823     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157338201X00181     Document Type: Article

References (40)

1. See Freedman (1988), 87-89, 519-21 and the following work cited there: Karlheinz Goldmann, Verzeichnis der Hochschulen (Neustadt an der Aisch, 1967).
2. An extensive bibliography of such source materials is given in Freedman (1999), II (151-63); also see individual examples there of presented in Freedman (1999), III, IV, V, and VI. The following example of a university oration can be added here: Bartholomaeus Clingius, Oratio de doctrina physica in promotione magistorum, a Decano Collegii philosophici L. Bartholomaeo Clingio habita, die 10. Septembris. Accessit calendarium vetus Romanum (Rostochn: Stephanus Myliander excudebat, 1567) [Wolfenbüttel HAB: 394.36 Quodl. (2)].
3. Some of the university-level academic instruction offered in philosophy and the arts from the mid-sixteenth century onwards was offered by individuals who were not professors. Refer to the following short study pertaining to non-profcssors as teachers during this period: Ewald Horn, "Zur Geschichte der Privatdozenten," Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für deutsche Erziehungs- und Schulgeschichte 11 (1901), 26-69.
4. For example, Clemens Timpler wrote textbooks on general physics, inanimate physics, and animate physics which were first published in 1605, 1605, and 1607, respectively; see Freedman (1988), 738-39, 747-48, 750. Other authors endeavored to write comprehensively on physics within a single volume. Among such single-volume works are the following: Gerardus Matthisius, Aristotelis de rerum principns liber primus, in certam methodum redactus & per erotemata explicatus (Coloniae: Excudebat Pctrus Horst, 1556) [Cologne UStB: P 8/14];
5. Johanne Combachius, Physicorum libri IV⋯ Editio altera priori auctior & emendatior (Impensis Johan-Caroli Unckelii bibliopolae activis Francofurti ad Moenum, 1629).
6. Also see the single-volume works on natural philosophy by Velcurio, Lieblcr, and Hoen which are cited below in footnotes 28, 29, and 40. Some "single volume" textbooks on physics in manuscript form arc also extant; the following example can be given here: Compendium totius commentarii in octo libros physicorum ⋯ Christophoro Brandis societatis Jesu professorr ordinario dictati. Enucleatum per Joannem Hueberum eiusdem facultatis studiosum (Dilingae. Anno Christi 1609 et [16]10) [Philadelphia (USA), University of Pennsylvania, Special Collections: Ms. Codex 779].
7. An oblique discussion of the four primary qualities is given in the following work: Simon Felice [Felix], S.J. (praes.) and Christophorus Rhelinger ab Horgau (resp.), Praecipuae dijjicultates ex libris de generatione excerptae in ⋯ Academia Ingolstadiensi ⋯ 20. Maij (Ingolstadii: Ex typographaeo Ederiano apud Elisabetham Angermariam viduam, 1615) [Wolfenbuttel HAB: Xb 6023]. Clemens Timpler's views concerning the four primary qualities can be accessed only after one has extracted his discussion of them - and of concepts pertaining to them - from many of his different writings; see Freedman (1988), 258, 262, 273, 413-14, 632, 634, 640, 714.
8. Georg Oergel, "Die Studienreform der Universitat Erfurt vom Jahre 1519," jahrbücher der Königlichee Akademii gemeinnütziger Wissenschaft zu Erfurt, Neue Folge, 25 (1899), 81-95 (87-90).
9. Rudolf Kink, Geschichte der kaiserlichen Universität zu Wien. II. Statutenbuch der Universität (Vienna, 1854; rpt. Frankfurt, 1969), 164-67 (17. Jänner 1554, Fcststellung fixer Gehalten ffr die Profcssoren aller Faculläten).
10. The document containing this information has been transcribed and published in Konrad Kolbe, "Stiftungsurkunde der Schule und des Gymnasium zu Beuthen an der Oder aus dem Jahre 1616," Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für deutsche Erziehungs- und Schulgeschichte 3 (1893), 209-68 (236-37); the "Florins" here are referred to as Rheinisch florin in the transliterated text.
11. This salary information is taken from a handwritten leaf concerning salaries (paid in money as well as in kind) to professors and teachers at the University of Giessen on April 13, 1650. The payment of corn, wheat, geese, chickens, wood, and other commodities has been omitted here. See Giessen UA: Allg. 52, f. 292v (-295r: Besoldungsangaben); the names of some of the persons who wcrc paid these salaries can be cross-checked with the aid of an extant broadsheet which is a syllabus of lectures for the University of Giessen dated June 1, 1650: Restauratae Academiae Hasso-Giisenae Reclor lolusque ordinis professant senatus ⋯ P.P. Gissae die 1. Junii 1650 (Gissae: Typis Josephi Dieterici Hampelii, 1650) [Giessen UA: Allg. 52, f. 281]. No explanation can be offered here as to why one professor of jurisprudence, Petrus Haberkorn, was paid only 60 Reichstaler.
12. Georgius Lieblerus, EPitome philosophiae naturalis, ex Aristotelis summi philosophi libris ita excerpta (Basileae: Per Johannem Oporinum, 1561) [Munich SB: Phys. g. 254]. Also refer to the editions of Liebler's textbook on physics given in Lohr (1988), 223-24.
13. For example, see the following; Joannes Ludovicus Hawenreuterus, ⋯ Compendium librorum physicorum Aristotelis conscriptum et aeditum⋯ in usum Academiae Argentoratensis (Argentinae: Per Josiam Rihelium, 1593) [Urbana, Illinois (USA), University of Illinois, Special Collections, 875 / Erla / 1573 (2)]. Concerning Hawenreuter see Lohr (1988), 183-84;
14. with regard to Hawenreuter and the Strassburg Academy refer to Anton Schindling, Humanistische Hochschule und Freii Reichstadta Gymnasium und Akademii in Strassburg 1538-1621, Veröffentlichungen des Institutes fur Europaische Geschichte Mainz 77 (Wiesbaden, 1977).
15. Concerning the careers of those individuals who served as professor of physics at the University of Marburg refer to Franz Gundlach, Catalogus professorum academiae Marburgensis. Die akademischee Lehrer der Philipps-Universität Marburg von 1527 bis 1910, Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Hessen und Waldeck 15, (Marburg, 1927), 586-89.
16. These encyclopedias are cited in Freedman (1999), VI (232, 252-53), VII (347 [A.36.-A.37]). Also see the following reprint: Johann Heinrich Alsted, Encyclopaedia, Faksimile-Neudruck der Ausgabe Herborn 1630 mit einem Vorwort von Wilhelm Schmidt-Biggemann und eincr Bibliographie von Jorg Jungmayr, 4 vols. (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, 1989-1990).
17. An encyclopedic collection of philosophical disputations edited by Theodorus Ebertus, a Protestant professor at the University of Frankfurt an der Oder was published in the year 1620; four disputations on philosophical subject-matters held during 1592, 1593, and 1594 at Roman Catholic academic institutions in Central Europe were appended to a collection of axioms published in the year 1616. Both of these collections included disputations on physics and are cited in Freedman (1999), VI (232, 253). Also refer to the examples of single disputations cited here in footnote 43 below as well as the following Protestant example: Rodolphus Goclenius (praes.) and Johannes Hellerus (resp.), Theses philosophicae, partim de subiecto physicess partim de clementta virtute ethica (Marpurgi: Ex officina typographica Pauli Egenolphi, 1593) [Marburg UB: A 88 / 321#].
18. Matthaeus Hoen, Philosophiae speculatricis Aristototelis Slagiritae, parv yrima, continens compendiariam resolutionem logices (Coloniae Agrippinae: Sumptibus Petri Henningn bibliopolae, 1619) [Cologne UStB: G.B.IIb 410e (1)];
19. Matthaeus Hoen, Philosophiae speculatricis Aristototelis Stagiritae, pars secunda, continens compendiariam resolutionem physices (Coloniae Agrippinae: Apud Antonium Boëtzerum, 1620) [Cologne UStB: G.B.IIb 410e (2)];
20. Matthaeus Hoen, Philosophiae speculatricis Aristototelis Stagiritae, pars tertia ⋯ duodecim librorum metaphysicorum (Coloniae Agrippinae: Apud Antonium Boetzerum, 1620) [Cologne UStB: G.B.IIb 410e (3)]. Concerning Matthaeus Hoen (d. 1653) also see Lohr (1988), 191.
21. Alphonsus Stadlmayr O.S.B., Philosophia tripartita. Logica, physica, mrtaphyska. Secundum mentem Angelici Doctoris S. Thomae Aquinitatis explicata (Constantiac: Ex officina episcopali apud Johannem Geng, 1644) [Tubingen UB: Aa 243. 8" R].
22. On the tide page of the following disputations the presider there of is referred to as professor of philosophy (philosophiae professor): Matthias Marius S.J. (praes.) and Johannes Vischerus (resp.), De rerum natura constantium scientia, principiis et affectionibus communibus disputatio. In Academia Ingohtadiensi⋯ proposita (Ingolstadii: Ex typographia Weissenhorniana apud Wolfgangum Edcrum, 1579) [Munich UB: 40 Philos. 170];
23. Georgius Clainerus S.J. (praes.), and Gaspar Molina (resp.), Disputatio philosophica de microcosmo seu mundo parvo, quam in ⋯. Ingolstadiensium Academia ⋯ publice defendii (Ingolstadii: Ex typographei Andreae Angermarii, 1612) [Munich UB: 40 Philos. 765];
24. Leonardus Bildstain S.J. (praes). and Jacobus Juncker (resp.), Physica paradoxa ex VIII. libris physicis deducta, et in ⋯ Universitate Freiburgi Brisgoiae ⋯ disputata ⋯ mense Octobrr (Friburgi Brisgoiac: Typis Theodori Meyeri, 1630) [Zürich ZB: R Rm 176, 2];
25. Thomas Mezler (praes.) and four respondents, Positionum philosophicarum centuria ex omnibus physicae partibus conscripta, et in ⋯ Monasterio S. Mariae de Marisstella Ordinis Cisterciensis publicae disceptationi exposiia (Friburgi Brisgoiae: Apud Theodorum Meyer, 1650) [Zürich ZB: R Rm 172, 27]. However, an extant handwritten list of personnel for the Wurzburg Jesuits from the year 1592 shows that the professors were mentioned together with the subject-matters which they taught - along with other duties that they had - during that year; this list includes a Joannes Pernottus who was referred to as "Professor Physicae Conciator latinus diebus festis praefectus" [Mainz StA: 115 / 110, Dd 2 (Catalogus personarum et officiorum Collegii societatisJesu Herbipoli), f. lr(-v)]. It is quite possible that these subject assignments were regarded as transient and not as more permanent sorts of "professorships." An extant handwritten list of personnel for the Luzern Jesuits lists six different individuals that served as "Professor Physicae" for one year each from 1645 through 1650; see Luzern SA: Cod. KK 70 (Catalogi personarum et officiorum a prima origine Collegii nostri Lucernensis, 1574 [-1773]), ff. 74r-82r.
26. Refer to the following examples: Andreas Silvius (praes.) and Joannes Winhardus (resp.), Disputatio logica, physica, melaphyska, in Academia Dilingana publice proposita (Dilingae: Excudebat Joannes Mayer, 1583) [Munich UB: 40 Philos. 714];
27. Joannes Scheubelius, Conclusionee logicae, physicae et metaphysicae quae ex universa Peripatetica philosophia collectas profectus et ⋯ in ⋯ Moguntinensium Academia propugnabii (Moguntiae: Typis Joannis Albini, 1613) [Wiesbaden LB: B 355 (40)];
28. Georgius Reeb SJ., Distinctiones philosophiae. Quarum frequentior usus. Annn 1624. In Dilingana Academia explicatae: nunc recognita & auctae (Ingolstadii: Typis Georgii Haenlim apud Georgium Sartonum bibhopoliam Ingolstadiensem, 1629) [Erlangen UB: Phs. I 51(1)).
29. This can be ascertained from the literature cited in Freedman (1999), II; also refer to the following article: Sönke Lorenz, "Libri ordinarie legendi. Eine Skizze zum Lehrplan der mitteleuropäischen Artistenfakultät um die Wende vom 14. zum 15. Jahrhundert," Argumente und 'Zeugnisse, ed. Wolfgang Hogrebe, Studia Philosophica ct Historica 5 (Frankfurt a. M., Bern, and New York, 1986), 204-58.
30. Yet political leaders seem not have been the only initiators of such professorships in languages; in 1521 the arts faculty at thc University of Heidelberg warned the university Senate that the university's reputation would decline unless the study of language (i.e., Latin, Greek, and Hebrew) was given major emphasis; see Eduard Winkelmann, Urkundenbuch der Universität Heidelberg, II, Regesten (Heidelberg, 1886), 76-77.
31. This relative lack of extant information concerning Central European school curricula during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is evident from the following edition of school documents that mostly originated during that period: Johannes Müller, ed., Vor- und frühreformatorische Schulordnungee und Schulverträge in deutscher und niederländischer Sprache, 2 vols. (Zschopau, 1885-1886);
32. the only pre-AD 1500 document in that collection to contain information concerning school curricula is the one written for St. Stephan's (Cathedral) School in Vienna in the year 1446. Martin Kintzinger has discussed the relatively scarce extant documentation concerning late medieval schools - and the professional status of teachers of the arts - in some of his publications, including the following: Martin Kintzingcr, "Scholaster und Schulmeister. Funktionsfelder der Wisscnsvermittlung im spdten Mittelalter," in Gelehrte im Reich. Zur Sozial- und Wirkungsgeschichte akademischee Eliten des 14. bis 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Rainer Christoph Schwinges, Zeitschrift fur Historische Forschung, Bciheft 18 (Berlin, 1996), 349-74;
33. Martin Kintzinger, "A Profession but not a Career? Schoolmasters and the Artes in Late Medieval Europe," in Universities and Schoollng in Medieval Society, ed. William J. Courtenay and Jürgen Miethke (Education and Society in the Middle Ages and Renaissance 10) (Leiden, 2000), 167-81.
34. Jodocus Jungmannnus, Trium logicarum artium praxis, hoc est, de exercitatione liber grammaticae, rhetoricae, dialecticae praxin et usum (Cassellis: Excudebat Wilhelmus Wesselius, 1598) [Gotha FLB: Ph. 80 140 / 5]; (G) [eorgius] (G) [umpftzhaimerus], Gymnasma de exerritiis academicorum (Argentinae: Sumpt. Eberhardi Zetzneri liibliop., 1621) [Wolfenbüttel HAB: 577.1 Quodl. (1)]; academic exercises are discussed as part of the vast majority of the curriculum plans cited in Freedman (1999), II, III, IV, V, and VI.
35. The following two examples of disputations on physics held by Protestants - complementing the examples of disputations held by Roman Catholics as cited in footnote 42 above - can be given here: Clemens Timplerus (praes.) and Nicolaus Stulen (resp.), Theses physicae de natural necessitate et certitudine (Steinfurti Benthemiorum: Excudebat Theophilus Caesar, 1598) [Zurich ZB: XIX 247, nr. 10];
36. Jacobus Martini (praes.) and Joannes Cogelerus (resp.), Disputatio valedicloria de constitutione scientiae physicae Aristotelis universae (Witebergae: Typis M. Georgij Mulleri, 1597) [Nat Lib Medicine: W4 / W82 / 1597 / M.1].
37. Discussion of this development will be reserved for a separate article; here the following published example there of can be mentioned: Johannes Christophorus Sturmius, Collegium experimentale sive curiosum, in quo primaria hujus seculi inventa & experimenta physico-mathematica ⋯ partim ab aliis jam pridem exhibita, partim noviter istis superaddita, per ultimum quadrimestre anni 1672 viginti naturae scrutatoribus ⋯ et ad causas suas naturales demonstrattva methodo reduxit (Norimbergae: Sumtibus Wolfgangi Mauritii Endteri & Johannss Andreae Endteri haeredum, 1676) [Zurich ZB: Z 117].
38. The gradual expansion of the Luzern Jesuit Academy from 1574 onwards can be traced through the extant Catalogi personarum et officiorum a prima origine Collegii nostri Lucernensisi 1574 [-1773] [Luzern SA: Cod KK 70];
39. also see the following general study pertaining to this same topic: Karl Hengst, jesuiten an Universitäten und jesuitenuniversitäten, Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte, Neue Folge, 2 (Paderborn, 1981).
40. To give onc example, Clemens Timpler was ejected from the University of Leipzig in 1592 on account of his refusal to sign the (Lutheran) Formula of Concord; see Freedman (1988), 8, 21, 465; concerning the banishment of crypto-Calvinist teachers from the Universities of Leipzig and Wittenberg in the year 1592 refer to the following monograph: Thomas Klein, Der Kampf um die Zweite Reformation in Kursachsen, 1586-1591, Mitteldeutsche Forschungen 25 (Cologne-Graz, 1962).