The Psychological and Behavioural Bases of Islamic Fundamentalism

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 37-71

  Taylor, Max ^a   Horgan, John ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035737962     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550109609699     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. S. Bruce, 'Protestant Resurgence and Fundamentalism', Political Quarterly 61 (1990), pp.161-68.
2. Ibid.
3. G. Kepel, Muslim Extremism in Egypt (Trans. J. Rothschild) (Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles 1984) p.226.
4. See C. E. Bosworth, Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook (Islamic Surveys, No. 5) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 1981).
5. See M. Taylor, The Fanatics: A Behavioural Approach to Political Violence (London: Brassey's 1991); D. C. Rapoport, 'Sacred Terror: A Contemporary Example From Islam', in W. Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press 1990) pp.103-130.
6. See M. Taylor, The Fanatics: A Behavioural Approach to Political Violence (London: Brassey's 1991); D. C. Rapoport, 'Sacred Terror: A Contemporary Example From Islam', in W. Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press 1990) pp.103-130.
7. L. Rosen, The Anthropology of Justice: Law as Culture in Islamic Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989).
8. E. Sivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1985) p. 10.
9. Ibid., p.3.
10. J. Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat's Assassins and the Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. 1986) pp.xxii-xxiii.
11. L. Kuper, 'Theological Warrants for Genocide: Judaism, Islam and Christianity', Terrorism and Political Violence 2/2 (Spring 1990) pp.351-79.
12. See in particular, S. Qutb, Milestones (Beirut: Holy Koran Publishing House 1978). Although a number of fundamentalist authors can be identified, in the following discussion Sayyid Qutb is taken as the principal author representing the fundamentalist position. His influence can be identified throughout contemporary radical Islam.
13. Ibid., see especially pp.7-19.
14. Ibid., p.9.
15. Bold type included in original text.
16. A. S. Babeair, 'Contemporary Islamic Revivalism: A Movement or a Moment', Journal of Arab Affairs 9 (1990) pp.122-46.
17. Cited by Sivan (note 7) pp.23-24.
18. Qutb (note 11); see his Chapter 4, 'Jihaad in the Cause of God', pp.93-141.
19. Ibid., p.135.
20. Ibid., p.139.
21. Ibid., p.139.
22. See Taylor (note 5); also D. C. Rapoport, 'Messianism and Terror', The Center Magazine, Jan./Feb. (1986), pp.30-39; and D. C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review, 78/3 (1984), pp.658-77.
23. See Taylor (note 5); also D. C. Rapoport, 'Messianism and Terror', The Center Magazine, Jan./Feb. (1986), pp.30-39; and D. C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review, 78/3 (1984), pp.658-77.
24. J. M. Rhodes, The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford, CT: Hoover Institution Press 1980).
25. A. S. Ahmed, Discovering Islam (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1988) p.61.
26. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 21) also Rapoport, 'Messianism and Terror' (note 21) and D. C. Rapoport, 'Why Does Religious Messianism Produce Terror?', in P. Wilkinson and A. M. Stewart (eds.), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press 1987), pp.72-88.
27. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 21) also Rapoport, 'Messianism and Terror' (note 21) and D. C. Rapoport, 'Why Does Religious Messianism Produce Terror?', in P. Wilkinson and A. M. Stewart (eds.), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press 1987), pp.72-88.
28. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 21) also Rapoport, 'Messianism and Terror' (note 21) and D. C. Rapoport, 'Why Does Religious Messianism Produce Terror?', in P. Wilkinson and A. M. Stewart (eds.), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press 1987), pp.72-88.
29. Rhodes (note 22).
30. Jansen (note9) p.31.
31. An abbreviation of Al-Faridah al-Gha'ibah, The Neglected Duty by Muhammad Abd'alSalam Faraj (see Janssen, note 9).
32. Discussed at length by Jansen (note 9).
33. M. Taylor, The Terrorist (London: Brassey's Defence Publishers 1988).
34. Taylor (note 5).
35. The second author has recently reviewed 30 years of psychological research on terrorism. See J. Horgan, Terrorism and Political Violence: A Psychological Perspective (PhD dissertation, Department of Applied Psychology, University College, Cork, 2000). For a summary, see J. Horgan, '"It's the Question that Drives Us": The Search for the Terrorist Personality' (under submission). For other reviews, see A. Silke, 'Cheshire-Cat Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research', Psychology, Crime & Law, 4/1 (1998), pp.51-69; M. Crenshaw, 'The Psychology of Political Terrorism', in M. G. Hermann (ed.) Political Psychology: Contemporary Problems and Issues (London: Jossey-Bass 1986), pp.379-413; and Taylor (note 29).
36. The second author has recently reviewed 30 years of psychological research on terrorism. See J. Horgan, Terrorism and Political Violence: A Psychological Perspective (PhD dissertation, Department of Applied Psychology, University College, Cork, 2000). For a summary, see J. Horgan, '"It's the Question that Drives Us": The Search for the Terrorist Personality' (under submission). For other reviews, see A. Silke, 'Cheshire-Cat Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research', Psychology, Crime & Law, 4/1 (1998), pp.51-69; M. Crenshaw, 'The Psychology of Political Terrorism', in M. G. Hermann (ed.) Political Psychology: Contemporary Problems and Issues (London: Jossey-Bass 1986), pp.379-413; and Taylor (note 29).
37. The second author has recently reviewed 30 years of psychological research on terrorism. See J. Horgan, Terrorism and Political Violence: A Psychological Perspective (PhD dissertation, Department of Applied Psychology, University College, Cork, 2000). For a summary, see J. Horgan, '"It's the Question that Drives Us": The Search for the Terrorist Personality' (under submission). For other reviews, see A. Silke, 'Cheshire-Cat Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research', Psychology, Crime & Law, 4/1 (1998), pp.51-69; M. Crenshaw, 'The Psychology of Political Terrorism', in M. G. Hermann (ed.) Political Psychology: Contemporary Problems and Issues (London: Jossey-Bass 1986), pp.379-413; and Taylor (note 29).
38. The second author has recently reviewed 30 years of psychological research on terrorism. See J. Horgan, Terrorism and Political Violence: A Psychological Perspective (PhD dissertation, Department of Applied Psychology, University College, Cork, 2000). For a summary, see J. Horgan, '"It's the Question that Drives Us": The Search for the Terrorist Personality' (under submission). For other reviews, see A. Silke, 'Cheshire-Cat Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research', Psychology, Crime & Law, 4/1 (1998), pp.51-69; M. Crenshaw, 'The Psychology of Political Terrorism', in M. G. Hermann (ed.) Political Psychology: Contemporary Problems and Issues (London: Jossey-Bass 1986), pp.379-413; and Taylor (note 29).
39. For example, H. J. Eysenck, The Psychology of Politics (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1954).
40. This issue is explored in more detail in a forthcoming book on the psychology of terrorism (by the authors of this article) in the particular context of developing a useful model that describes how people become involved, remain within, and ultimately disengage from terrorist organisations.
41. Qutb(note 11).
42. Rosen (note 6).
43. Taylor (notes 5 and 29).
44. Horgan(note 31).
45. Ibid.
46. See especially T. Bjorgo, Racist and Right-Wing Violence in Scandinavia: Patterns, Perpetrators and Responses (Oslo: Tano Aschehoug 1997). Although Bjorgo discusses behavioural processes related to right-wing extremist violence, the parallels are valuable and should be developed further in the context of different 'types' of terrorism.
47. Ibid.; also see Taylor (note 29).
48. K. Kellen, Terrorists: What are They Like? How Some Terrorists Describe Their World and Actions (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation 1979).
49. Ibid.
50. J. Brockner and J. Z. Rubin, Entrapment in Escalating Conflicts: A Social Psychological Analysis (New York: Springer-Verlag 1985).
51. M. Taylor and H. Ryan, 'Fanaticism, Political Suicide and Terrorism', Terrorism, 11/2 (1988), pp.91-111.
52. See J. M. Post, 'Notes on a Psychodynamic Theory of Terrorist Behaviour', Terrorism, 7 (1984), pp.241-56; J. M. Post, 'Hostilite, Conformite, Fraternite: The Group Dynamics of Terrorist Behaviour', International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 36/2 (1986), pp.211-24; J. M. Post, '"It's Us Against Them": The Group Dynamics of Political Terrorism', Terrorism, 10/1 (1987), pp.23-35; and J. M. Post, Terrorist Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behaviour as a Product of Psychological Forces', in W. Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (pp.25-40) (New York: Cambridge University Press 1990).
53. See J. M. Post, 'Notes on a Psychodynamic Theory of Terrorist Behaviour', Terrorism, 7 (1984), pp.241-56; J. M. Post, 'Hostilite, Conformite, Fraternite: The Group Dynamics of Terrorist Behaviour', International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 36/2 (1986), pp.211-24; J. M. Post, '"It's Us Against Them": The Group Dynamics of Political Terrorism', Terrorism, 10/1 (1987), pp.23-35; and J. M. Post, Terrorist Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behaviour as a Product of Psychological Forces', in W. Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (pp.25-40) (New York: Cambridge University Press 1990).
54. See J. M. Post, 'Notes on a Psychodynamic Theory of Terrorist Behaviour', Terrorism, 7 (1984), pp.241-56; J. M. Post, 'Hostilite, Conformite, Fraternite: The Group Dynamics of Terrorist Behaviour', International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 36/2 (1986), pp.211-24; J. M. Post, '"It's Us Against Them": The Group Dynamics of Political Terrorism', Terrorism, 10/1 (1987), pp.23-35; and J. M. Post, Terrorist Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behaviour as a Product of Psychological Forces', in W. Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (pp.25-40) (New York: Cambridge University Press 1990).
55. See J. M. Post, 'Notes on a Psychodynamic Theory of Terrorist Behaviour', Terrorism, 7 (1984), pp.241-56; J. M. Post, 'Hostilite, Conformite, Fraternite: The Group Dynamics of Terrorist Behaviour', International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 36/2 (1986), pp.211-24; J. M. Post, '"It's Us Against Them": The Group Dynamics of Political Terrorism', Terrorism, 10/1 (1987), pp.23-35; and J. M. Post, Terrorist Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behaviour as a Product of Psychological Forces', in W. Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (pp.25-40) (New York: Cambridge University Press 1990).
56. This issue is discussed in detail in Taylor (note 29).
57. B. F. Skinner, Contingencies of Reinforcement (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 1968). Skinner introduces the term rule-following in Chapter 6, p. 133. Notes 6.1 to 6.4 are especially useful (pp. 157-71).
58. After R. W. Mallot, 'Rule Governed Behavior and Behavioral Anthropology', The Behavior Analyst, 11 (1988), pp.181-200.
59. There are relationships between the concept of behavioural rules, and more traditional forms of cognitive psychology. These are coherently explored in H. W. Reese, 'Rules and Rule-governance: Cognitive and Behavioristic Views', In S. C. Hayes (ed.) Rule-Governed Behavior: Cognition, Contingencies and Instructional Control (New York: Plenum Press 1989) pp.3-84.
60. B. F. Skinner, 'The Behaviour of the Listener', in Hayes (note 49), pp.85-96.
61. Skinner (note 47), p. 140.
62. The issues we have raised here relate to a complex area of behavioural analysis, and more technical details of this approach can be found in, for example. Skinner (notes 47 and 50); Mallot (note 48); H. Schlinger and E. Blakely, 'Function-Altering Effects of Contingency-specifying Stimuli', The Behavior Analyst, 10 (1987), pp.41-45; and Hayes (note 49).
63. M. Rokeach, Belief, Attitude and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1968).
64. Hayes (note 49). Whilst not explored in detail here, the notion of behavioural rules fits readily into the rational choice paradigm (D. B. Cornish and R. V. G. Clarke, The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending (New York: Springer-Verlag 1986); also see N. Leites and C. Wolfe, Rebellion and Offending (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation 1970); J. Denardo, Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1984); D. Mason, Individual Participation in Collective Racial Violence and Terror: A Rational Choice Synthesis (PhD dissertation, University of Georgia 1982).
65. Hayes (note 49). Whilst not explored in detail here, the notion of behavioural rules fits readily into the rational choice paradigm (D. B. Cornish and R. V. G. Clarke, The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending (New York: Springer-Verlag 1986); also see N. Leites and C. Wolfe, Rebellion and Offending (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation 1970); J. Denardo, Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1984); D. Mason, Individual Participation in Collective Racial Violence and Terror: A Rational Choice Synthesis (PhD dissertation, University of Georgia 1982).
66. Hayes (note 49). Whilst not explored in detail here, the notion of behavioural rules fits readily into the rational choice paradigm (D. B. Cornish and R. V. G. Clarke, The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending (New York: Springer-Verlag 1986); also see N. Leites and C. Wolfe, Rebellion and Offending (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation 1970); J. Denardo, Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1984); D. Mason, Individual Participation in Collective Racial Violence and Terror: A Rational Choice Synthesis (PhD dissertation, University of Georgia 1982).
67. Hayes (note 49). Whilst not explored in detail here, the notion of behavioural rules fits readily into the rational choice paradigm (D. B. Cornish and R. V. G. Clarke, The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending (New York: Springer-Verlag 1986); also see N. Leites and C. Wolfe, Rebellion and Offending (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation 1970); J. Denardo, Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1984); D. Mason, Individual Participation in Collective Racial Violence and Terror: A Rational Choice Synthesis (PhD dissertation, University of Georgia 1982).
68. Mallot (note 48)
69. D. T. Cerutti, 'Discrimination Theory of Rule Governed Behavior', Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 51/2 (1989), pp.259-76.
70. D. J. Dietrich, 'National Renewal, Anti-Semitism, and Political Continuity: A Psychological Assessment', Political Psychology, 9/3 (1988), p.385-411.
71. A. Staats, Social Behaviorism (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press 1975).
72. Cerutti (note 56).
73. Skinner (note 47).
74. For a more extensive discussion of this, see Taylor (note 5).
75. A concept developed from H. Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1958).
76. An extensive discussion of these factors in relation to ideology can be found in Taylor (note 5).
77. Qutb (note 11) p. 139.
78. S. Qutb, Islam and Universal Peace (Indianapolis, IN: American Trust Publications 1977) p.72.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid., pp.73-74.
81. Ibid., p.74.
82. Qutb (note 11) p.164.
83. Rosen (note 6) p.41.
84. Qutb (note 65) p.70.
85. Qutb (note 11) p. 165.
86. For a discussion, see Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 21) p.658.
87. See Arendt (note 62); also H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books 1987).
88. The brief discussion is premised on the much fuller account of the issues in Chapter 6 of Taylor (note 5).
89. Ibid., the discussion in Chapter 2 also identifies these features as aspects of fanaticism.
90. Babeair (note 15).
91. R. Fisk, Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1991) p.78.
92. D. Groh, 'The Temptation of Conspiracy Theory', in C. F. Graumann and S. Moscovici (Eds.), Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy (New York: Springer-Verlag 1987) p.1.
93. L. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, CT: Stanford University Press 1957).
94. S. Moscovici, 'The Conspiracy Mentality', in Graumann and Moscovici (note 79) p.154.