Detours in the path toward strategic information systems alignment

California Management Review

Volumn , Issue 1, 2001, Pages 87-108

  Hirschheim, Rudy ^a   Sabherwal, Rajiv ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035730261     PISSN: 00081256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/41166112     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. F. Niederman, J. Brancheau, and J. Wetherbe, "Information Systems Management Issues for the 1990's," MIS Quarterly, 15/4 (1991): 475-495; J.C. Brancheau, B.D. Janz, and J.C. Wetherbe, "Key Issues in Information Systems Management: 1994-1995 SIM Delphi Results," MIS Quarterly, 20/2 (1996): 225-242
2. F. Niederman, J. Brancheau, and J. Wetherbe, "Information Systems Management Issues for the 1990's," MIS Quarterly, 15/4 (1991): 475-495; J.C. Brancheau, B.D. Janz, and J.C. Wetherbe, "Key Issues in Information Systems Management: 1994-1995 SIM Delphi Results," MIS Quarterly, 20/2 (1996): 225-242
3. Y.E. Chan, S.L. Huff, D.W. Barclay, and D.G. Copeland, "Business Strategic Orientation, Information Systems Strategic Orientation, and Strategic Alignment," Information Systems Research, 8/2 (1997): 125-150; R. Sabherwal and Y. Chan, "Alignment Between Business and IS Strategies: A Configurational Approach," Information Systems Research, 12/1 (2001): 11-33; J.C. Henderson and N. Venkatraman, "Strategic Alignment: A Model for Organizational Transformation through Information Technology," in T.A. Kochan and M. Useem, eds., Transforming Organizations (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 97-116.
4. Y.E. Chan, S.L. Huff, D.W. Barclay, and D.G. Copeland, "Business Strategic Orientation, Information Systems Strategic Orientation, and Strategic Alignment," Information Systems Research, 8/2 (1997): 125-150; R. Sabherwal and Y. Chan, "Alignment Between Business and IS Strategies: A Configurational Approach," Information Systems Research, 12/1 (2001): 11-33; J.C. Henderson and N. Venkatraman, "Strategic Alignment: A Model for Organizational Transformation through Information Technology," in T.A. Kochan and M. Useem, eds., Transforming Organizations (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 97-116.
5. Y.E. Chan, S.L. Huff, D.W. Barclay, and D.G. Copeland, "Business Strategic Orientation, Information Systems Strategic Orientation, and Strategic Alignment," Information Systems Research, 8/2 (1997): 125-150; R. Sabherwal and Y. Chan, "Alignment Between Business and IS Strategies: A Configurational Approach," Information Systems Research, 12/1 (2001): 11-33; J.C. Henderson and N. Venkatraman, "Strategic Alignment: A Model for Organizational Transformation through Information Technology," in T.A. Kochan and M. Useem, eds., Transforming Organizations (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 97-116.
6. J.D. Thompson, Organizations in Action (Chicago, IL: McGraw Hill, 1967).
7. Henderson and Venkatraman, op. cit.
8. J. Rockart, M. Earl, and J. Ross, "Eight Imperatives for the New IT Organization," Sloan Management Review, 38/1 (Fall 1996): 43-55; H. Itami and T. Numagami, "Dynamic Interaction Between Strategy and Technology," Strategic Management Journal, 13 (Winter 1992): 119-135.
9. J. Rockart, M. Earl, and J. Ross, "Eight Imperatives for the New IT Organization," Sloan Management Review, 38/1 (Fall 1996): 43-55; H. Itami and T. Numagami, "Dynamic Interaction Between Strategy and Technology," Strategic Management Journal, 13 (Winter 1992): 119-135.
10. J.C. Henderson and N. Venkatraman, "Strategic Alignment: Leveraging Information Technology for Transforming Organizations," IBM Systems Journal, 32/1 (1993): 4-16.
11. This perspective has been employed in some other articles on alignment. See J. Luftman and T. Brier, "Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment," California Management Review, 42/1 (Fall 1999): 109-122; P.W. Yetton, J.F. Craig, and K.D. Johnston, "Fit, Simplicity, and Risk: Multiple Paths to Strategic IT Change," Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Conference on Information System, 1995, pp. 1-12; Itami and Numagami, op. cit.
12. This perspective has been employed in some other articles on alignment. See J. Luftman and T. Brier, "Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment," California Management Review, 42/1 (Fall 1999): 109-122; P.W. Yetton, J.F. Craig, and K.D. Johnston, "Fit, Simplicity, and Risk: Multiple Paths to Strategic IT Change," Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Conference on Information System, 1995, pp. 1-12; Itami and Numagami, op. cit.
13. This perspective has been employed in some other articles on alignment. See J. Luftman and T. Brier, "Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment," California Management Review, 42/1 (Fall 1999): 109-122; P.W. Yetton, J.F. Craig, and K.D. Johnston, "Fit, Simplicity, and Risk: Multiple Paths to Strategic IT Change," Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Conference on Information System, 1995, pp. 1-12; Itami and Numagami, op. cit.
14. S.R. Das, S.A. Zahra, and M.E. Warkentin, "Integrating the Content and Process of Strategic MIS Planning with Competitive Strategy," Decision Sciences, 22 (1991): 953-984.
15. C. Wiseman, Strategic Information Systems, (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1988); H. Johnson and S. Carrico, "Developing Capabilities to Use Information Strategically," MIS Quarterly, 12/2 (1988): 37-48; Y.E. Chan and S.L. Huff, "Investigating Information Systems Strategic Alignment," in J.I. DeGross, R.P. Bostrom, and D. Robey, eds., Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Information Systems, Orlando, Florida, 1993, pp. 345-362; A.L. Lederer and A.L. Mendelow, "Convincing Top-Management of the Strategic Potential of Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 12/4 (December 1988): 525-544.
16. C. Wiseman, Strategic Information Systems, (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1988); H. Johnson and S. Carrico, "Developing Capabilities to Use Information Strategically," MIS Quarterly, 12/2 (1988): 37-48; Y.E. Chan and S.L. Huff, "Investigating Information Systems Strategic Alignment," in J.I. DeGross, R.P. Bostrom, and D. Robey, eds., Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Information Systems, Orlando, Florida, 1993, pp. 345-362; A.L. Lederer and A.L. Mendelow, "Convincing Top-Management of the Strategic Potential of Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 12/4 (December 1988): 525-544.
17. C. Wiseman, Strategic Information Systems, (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1988); H. Johnson and S. Carrico, "Developing Capabilities to Use Information Strategically," MIS Quarterly, 12/2 (1988): 37-48; Y.E. Chan and S.L. Huff, "Investigating Information Systems Strategic Alignment," in J.I. DeGross, R.P. Bostrom, and D. Robey, eds., Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Information Systems, Orlando, Florida, 1993, pp. 345-362; A.L. Lederer and A.L. Mendelow, "Convincing Top-Management of the Strategic Potential of Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 12/4 (December 1988): 525-544.
18. C. Wiseman, Strategic Information Systems, (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1988); H. Johnson and S. Carrico, "Developing Capabilities to Use Information Strategically," MIS Quarterly, 12/2 (1988): 37-48; Y.E. Chan and S.L. Huff, "Investigating Information Systems Strategic Alignment," in J.I. DeGross, R.P. Bostrom, and D. Robey, eds., Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Information Systems, Orlando, Florida, 1993, pp. 345-362; A.L. Lederer and A.L. Mendelow, "Convincing Top-Management of the Strategic Potential of Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 12/4 (December 1988): 525-544.
19. C. Sauer, G. Southon, and C.N.G. Dampney, "Fit, Failure, and the House of Horrors: Toward a Configurational Theory of IS Project Failure," in Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Conference on Information Systems, 1997, pp. 349-366, at 360-361.
20. R. Sabherwal and P. Kirs, "The Alignment Between Organizational Critical Success Factors and Information Technology Capability in Academic Institutions," Decision Sciences, 25/2 (1994): 301-330.
21. Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
22. See B.H. Reich and I. Benbasat, "Measuring the Linkage Between Business and Information Technology Objectives," MIS Quarterly, 20/1 (March 1996): 55-81; V. Sambamurthy and R.W. Zmud, "Arrangements for Information Technology Governance: A Theory of Multiple Contingencies," MIS Quarterly, 23/2 (June 1999): 261-290. Sambamurthy and Zmud conceptualize IS management as the problem of aligning the relationship between the business and IS function in order to take advantage of IT opportunities and capabilities. Earlier, Reich and Benbasat defined alignment as "the degree to which the information technology mission, objectives and plans support and are supported by the business mission, objectives and plans."
23. See B.H. Reich and I. Benbasat, "Measuring the Linkage Between Business and Information Technology Objectives," MIS Quarterly, 20/1 (March 1996): 55-81; V. Sambamurthy and R.W. Zmud, "Arrangements for Information Technology Governance: A Theory of Multiple Contingencies," MIS Quarterly, 23/2 (June 1999): 261-290. Sambamurthy and Zmud conceptualize IS management as the problem of aligning the relationship between the business and IS function in order to take advantage of IT opportunities and capabilities. Earlier, Reich and Benbasat defined alignment as "the degree to which the information technology mission, objectives and plans support and are supported by the business mission, objectives and plans."
24. The literature on "IS alignment" can be traced back to studies focusing on the broad area of strategic IS management. See, for example, W.R. King, "Strategic Planning for Management Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 2/1 (March 1978): 27-37. IS alignment discussions followed. Some studies looked upon "strategic alignment" as the fit between business and IS strategies, e.g., Chan and Huff, op. cit. Others examined "structural alignment," i.e., the fit between IS structure and organization structure. See, for example, P. Ein-Dor and E. Segev, "Organizational Context and MIS Structure: Some Empirical Evidence," MIS Quarterly, 6/3 (September 1982): 55-68; K. Fiedler, V. Grover, and J.T.C. Teng, "An Empirically Derived Taxonomy of Information Technology Structure and its Relationship to Organization Structure," Journal of MIS, 13/1 (Summer 1996): 9-34. Others, such as Henderson and Venkatraman [(1993), op. cit.] simultaneously matched business strategy and structure with IS strategy and structure. They recommended that studies of alignment should examine all four of these components.
25. The literature on "IS alignment" can be traced back to studies focusing on the broad area of strategic IS management. See, for example, W.R. King, "Strategic Planning for Management Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 2/1 (March 1978): 27-37. IS alignment discussions followed. Some studies looked upon "strategic alignment" as the fit between business and IS strategies, e.g., Chan and Huff, op. cit. Others examined "structural alignment," i.e., the fit between IS structure and organization structure. See, for example, P. Ein-Dor and E. Segev, "Organizational Context and MIS Structure: Some Empirical Evidence," MIS Quarterly, 6/3 (September 1982): 55-68; K. Fiedler, V. Grover, and J.T.C. Teng, "An Empirically Derived Taxonomy of Information Technology Structure and its Relationship to Organization Structure," Journal of MIS, 13/1 (Summer 1996): 9-34. Others, such as Henderson and Venkatraman [(1993), op. cit.] simultaneously matched business strategy and structure with IS strategy and structure. They recommended that studies of alignment should examine all four of these components.
26. The literature on "IS alignment" can be traced back to studies focusing on the broad area of strategic IS management. See, for example, W.R. King, "Strategic Planning for Management Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 2/1 (March 1978): 27-37. IS alignment discussions followed. Some studies looked upon "strategic alignment" as the fit between business and IS strategies, e.g., Chan and Huff, op. cit. Others examined "structural alignment," i.e., the fit between IS structure and organization structure. See, for example, P. Ein-Dor and E. Segev, "Organizational Context and MIS Structure: Some Empirical Evidence," MIS Quarterly, 6/3 (September 1982): 55-68; K. Fiedler, V. Grover, and J.T.C. Teng, "An Empirically Derived Taxonomy of Information Technology Structure and its Relationship to Organization Structure," Journal of MIS, 13/1 (Summer 1996): 9-34. Others, such as Henderson and Venkatraman [(1993), op. cit.] simultaneously matched business strategy and structure with IS strategy and structure. They recommended that studies of alignment should examine all four of these components.
27. The literature on "IS alignment" can be traced back to studies focusing on the broad area of strategic IS management. See, for example, W.R. King, "Strategic Planning for Management Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 2/1 (March 1978): 27-37. IS alignment discussions followed. Some studies looked upon "strategic alignment" as the fit between business and IS strategies, e.g., Chan and Huff, op. cit. Others examined "structural alignment," i.e., the fit between IS structure and organization structure. See, for example, P. Ein-Dor and E. Segev, "Organizational Context and MIS Structure: Some Empirical Evidence," MIS Quarterly, 6/3 (September 1982): 55-68; K. Fiedler, V. Grover, and J.T.C. Teng, "An Empirically Derived Taxonomy of Information Technology Structure and its Relationship to Organization Structure," Journal of MIS, 13/1 (Summer 1996): 9-34. Others, such as Henderson and Venkatraman [(1993), op. cit.] simultaneously matched business strategy and structure with IS strategy and structure. They recommended that studies of alignment should examine all four of these components.
28. The literature on "IS alignment" can be traced back to studies focusing on the broad area of strategic IS management. See, for example, W.R. King, "Strategic Planning for Management Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, 2/1 (March 1978): 27-37. IS alignment discussions followed. Some studies looked upon "strategic alignment" as the fit between business and IS strategies, e.g., Chan and Huff, op. cit. Others examined "structural alignment," i.e., the fit between IS structure and organization structure. See, for example, P. Ein-Dor and E. Segev, "Organizational Context and MIS Structure: Some Empirical Evidence," MIS Quarterly, 6/3 (September 1982): 55-68; K. Fiedler, V. Grover, and J.T.C. Teng, "An Empirically Derived Taxonomy of Information Technology Structure and its Relationship to Organization Structure," Journal of MIS, 13/1 (Summer 1996): 9-34. Others, such as Henderson and Venkatraman [(1993), op. cit.] simultaneously matched business strategy and structure with IS strategy and structure. They recommended that studies of alignment should examine all four of these components.
29. R.D. Galliers and A.R. Sutherland, "Information Systems Management and Strategy Formulation: The 'Stages of Growth' Model Revisited," Journal of Information Systems, 1/2 (1991): 89-114; S.L. Jarvenpaa and B. Ives, "Organizing for Global Competition: The Fit of Information Technology," Decision Sciences, 24/3 (May/June 1993): 547-580.
30. R.D. Galliers and A.R. Sutherland, "Information Systems Management and Strategy Formulation: The 'Stages of Growth' Model Revisited," Journal of Information Systems, 1/2 (1991): 89-114; S.L. Jarvenpaa and B. Ives, "Organizing for Global Competition: The Fit of Information Technology," Decision Sciences, 24/3 (May/June 1993): 547-580.
31. This typology was preferred over others because it combines elements of both corporate-level (i.e., which products and markets to compete in) and business-level strategies (i.e., how to compete in a particular industry). Defenders, Analyzers, and Prospectors face three broad types of problems (entrepreneurial, engineering, administrative), and solving the entrepreneurial problem in their model is equivalent to corporate-level strategy decisions while solving engineering and administrative problems corresponds to business-level strategy decisions. For more information, see D. W. Beard and G.G. Dess, "Corporate-Level Strategy, Business-Level Strategy, and Firm Performance," Academy of Management Journal, 24/4 (December 1981): 663-688.
32. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
33. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
34. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
35. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
36. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
37. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
38. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
39. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process (New York,NY: McGraw-Hill, 1978); R.E. Miles, C.C. Snow, A.D. Meyer, and H.J. Coleman, Jr., "Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process," Academy of Management Review, 3/3 (July 1978): 546-562. Miles and Snow also described a fourth type of organization (Reactor) as one that lacks a viable strategy or is in transition from one of the other three strategies to another, but exclude Reactors in their more recent work. R.E. Miles and C.C. Snow, Fit, Failure, and the Hall of Fame: How Companies Succeed or Fail (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996). We excluded Reactors, which is consistent with prior research. See, for example, D.H. Doty, W.H. Glick, and G.P. Huber, "Fit, Equifinality, and Organizational Effectiveness: A Test of Two Configurational Theories," Academy of Management Journal, 36/6 (December 1993): 1196-1250; J. Delery and D.H. Doty, "Modes of Theorizing in Strategic Human Resource Management: Tests of Universalistic, Contingency, and Configurational Performance Predictors," Academy of Management Journal, 39/4 (August 1996): 802-835; D.C. Hambrick, "Environment, Strategy, and Power Within Top Management Teams," Administrative Science Quarterly, 26/2 (June 1981): 253-276; D.C. Hambrick, "Some Tests of the Effectiveness and Functional Attributes of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types," Academy of Management Journal, 26/1 (March 1983): 5-26; S.M. Shortell and E.J. Zajac, "Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity," Academy of Management Journal, 33/4 (December 1990): 817-832.
40. L. Willcocks, D. Feeny, and G. Islei, eds., Managing IT as a Strategic Resource (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1997); C.V. Brown and S.L. Magill, "Alignment of the IS Functions with the Enterprise," MIS Quarterly, 18/4 (December 1994): 371-403; C.V. Brown and S.L. Magill, "Reconceptualizing the Context-Design Issue for the Information Systems Function," Organization Science, 9/2 (March/April 1998): 176-194.
41. L. Willcocks, D. Feeny, and G. Islei, eds., Managing IT as a Strategic Resource (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1997); C.V. Brown and S.L. Magill, "Alignment of the IS Functions with the Enterprise," MIS Quarterly, 18/4 (December 1994): 371-403; C.V. Brown and S.L. Magill, "Reconceptualizing the Context-Design Issue for the Information Systems Function," Organization Science, 9/2 (March/April 1998): 176-194.
42. L. Willcocks, D. Feeny, and G. Islei, eds., Managing IT as a Strategic Resource (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1997); C.V. Brown and S.L. Magill, "Alignment of the IS Functions with the Enterprise," MIS Quarterly, 18/4 (December 1994): 371-403; C.V. Brown and S.L. Magill, "Reconceptualizing the Context-Design Issue for the Information Systems Function," Organization Science, 9/2 (March/April 1998): 176-194.
43. This framework is consistent with prior multi-dimensional views of IS strategy. For example, our "IS role" reflects Henderson and Venkatraman's [(1993), op. cit.] "technology scope" and "systemic competencies," our "IS sourcing" reflects their "IT governance," and our "IS structure" reflects their "IS infrastructure and processes." Further, this framework of IS strategy, which is based on our study of organizations over the past 25 years, provides a convenient way to match IS strategy with Miles and Snow's typology of business strategy.
44. J. Peppard and J. Ward, "'Mind the Gap': Diagnosing the Relationship Between the IT Organization and the Rest of the Business," Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 8/1 (1999): 29-60; H. Enns and S. Huff, "Chief Information Officer Influence: An Exploratory Study," in R. Hansen, M. Bichler, and H. Mahrer, eds., ECIS 2000: A Cyberspace Odyssey; Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Information Systems, Vienna, Austria, July 3-5, 2000, pp. 660-666.
45. J. Peppard and J. Ward, "'Mind the Gap': Diagnosing the Relationship Between the IT Organization and the Rest of the Business," Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 8/1 (1999): 29-60; H. Enns and S. Huff, "Chief Information Officer Influence: An Exploratory Study," in R. Hansen, M. Bichler, and H. Mahrer, eds., ECIS 2000: A Cyberspace Odyssey; Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Information Systems, Vienna, Austria, July 3-5, 2000, pp. 660-666.
46. J.C. Camillus and A.L. Lederer, "Corporate Strategy and the Design of Computerized Information Systems," Sloan Management Review, 26/3 (Spring 1985): 35-42; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
47. J.C. Camillus and A.L. Lederer, "Corporate Strategy and the Design of Computerized Information Systems," Sloan Management Review, 26/3 (Spring 1985): 35-42; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
48. Reich and Benbasat, op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
49. Reich and Benbasat, op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
50. King, op. cit.
51. M. Lacity and R. Hirschheim, Information Systems Outsourcing: Myths, Metaphors and Realities (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1993); M. Lacity and R. Hirschheim, Beyond the Information Systems Outsourcing Bandwagon: The Insourcing Response (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1995); M.C. Lacity, L.P. Willcocks, and D.F. Feeny, "The Value of Selective IS Sourcing," Sloan Management Review, 37/3 (Spring 1996): 13-25.
52. M. Lacity and R. Hirschheim, Information Systems Outsourcing: Myths, Metaphors and Realities (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1993); M. Lacity and R. Hirschheim, Beyond the Information Systems Outsourcing Bandwagon: The Insourcing Response (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1995); M.C. Lacity, L.P. Willcocks, and D.F. Feeny, "The Value of Selective IS Sourcing," Sloan Management Review, 37/3 (Spring 1996): 13-25.
53. M. Lacity and R. Hirschheim, Information Systems Outsourcing: Myths, Metaphors and Realities (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1993); M. Lacity and R. Hirschheim, Beyond the Information Systems Outsourcing Bandwagon: The Insourcing Response (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1995); M.C. Lacity, L.P. Willcocks, and D.F. Feeny, "The Value of Selective IS Sourcing," Sloan Management Review, 37/3 (Spring 1996): 13-25.
54. Lacity, Willcocks, and Feeny, op. cit.
55. A.C. Boynton, G.G. Jacobs, and R.W. Zmud, "Whose Responsibility Is IT Management?" Sloan Management Review, 33/4 (Summer 1992): 32-38; S.L. Hodgkinson, "The Role of the Corporate IT Function in the Federal IT Organization," in M.J. Earl, ed., Information Management: The Organizational Dimension (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Tavakolian, "Linking the Information Technology Structure with Organizational Competitive Strategy: A Survey," MIS Quarterly, 13/3 (September 1989): 309-317; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
56. A.C. Boynton, G.G. Jacobs, and R.W. Zmud, "Whose Responsibility Is IT Management?" Sloan Management Review, 33/4 (Summer 1992): 32-38; S.L. Hodgkinson, "The Role of the Corporate IT Function in the Federal IT Organization," in M.J. Earl, ed., Information Management: The Organizational Dimension (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Tavakolian, "Linking the Information Technology Structure with Organizational Competitive Strategy: A Survey," MIS Quarterly, 13/3 (September 1989): 309-317; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
57. A.C. Boynton, G.G. Jacobs, and R.W. Zmud, "Whose Responsibility Is IT Management?" Sloan Management Review, 33/4 (Summer 1992): 32-38; S.L. Hodgkinson, "The Role of the Corporate IT Function in the Federal IT Organization," in M.J. Earl, ed., Information Management: The Organizational Dimension (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Tavakolian, "Linking the Information Technology Structure with Organizational Competitive Strategy: A Survey," MIS Quarterly, 13/3 (September 1989): 309-317; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
58. A.C. Boynton, G.G. Jacobs, and R.W. Zmud, "Whose Responsibility Is IT Management?" Sloan Management Review, 33/4 (Summer 1992): 32-38; S.L. Hodgkinson, "The Role of the Corporate IT Function in the Federal IT Organization," in M.J. Earl, ed., Information Management: The Organizational Dimension (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Tavakolian, "Linking the Information Technology Structure with Organizational Competitive Strategy: A Survey," MIS Quarterly, 13/3 (September 1989): 309-317; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
59. A.C. Boynton, G.G. Jacobs, and R.W. Zmud, "Whose Responsibility Is IT Management?" Sloan Management Review, 33/4 (Summer 1992): 32-38; S.L. Hodgkinson, "The Role of the Corporate IT Function in the Federal IT Organization," in M.J. Earl, ed., Information Management: The Organizational Dimension (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Tavakolian, "Linking the Information Technology Structure with Organizational Competitive Strategy: A Survey," MIS Quarterly, 13/3 (September 1989): 309-317; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
60. A.C. Boynton, G.G. Jacobs, and R.W. Zmud, "Whose Responsibility Is IT Management?" Sloan Management Review, 33/4 (Summer 1992): 32-38; S.L. Hodgkinson, "The Role of the Corporate IT Function in the Federal IT Organization," in M.J. Earl, ed., Information Management: The Organizational Dimension (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Tavakolian, "Linking the Information Technology Structure with Organizational Competitive Strategy: A Survey," MIS Quarterly, 13/3 (September 1989): 309-317; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
61. Hodgkinson, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
62. Hodgkinson, op. cit.; and Rockart et al., op. cit.
63. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
64. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
65. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
66. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
67. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
68. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
69. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
70. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
71. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
72. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
73. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
74. The development of these profiles was based on a detailed review of the literature on Miles and Snow typology, including: G.G. Snow and L.G. Hrebiniak, "Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly, 25/2 (June 1980), 317-336; R. Chaganti and R. Sambharya, "Strategic Orientation and Characteristics of Upper Management," Strategic Management Journal, 8/4 (July/August 1987): 393-401; E. Segev, "A Systematic Comparative Analysis and Synthesis of Two Business-level Strategic Typologies," Strategic Management Journal, 10/5 (September/October 1989): 487-505; S.A. Zahra and J.A. Pearce II, "Research Evidence on the Miles-Snow Typology," Journal of Management, 16/4 (December 1990): 751-768; J. Karimi, Y.P. Gupta, and T.M. Somers, "Impact of Competitive Strategy and Information Technology Maturity on Firms' Response to Globalization," Journal of MIS, 12/4 (Spring 1996): 55-88; Miles and Snow (1978, 1996), op. cit.; Miles et al. (1978), op. cit.; Hambrick (1981, 1983), op. cit.; Camillus and Lederer, op. cit.; Doty et al., op. cit.; Delery and Doty, op. cit.; and Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
75. Of course, the world is not this simple. We use the word "ideally" because we are aware of cases when alignment does not always lead to success or enhanced business performance particularly in the short term. However, a few caveats are in order. First, political expediency sometimes dictates misalignment for the "good of the organizations at a particular point in time." Second, one might argue that a firm obtains valuable lessons from the intervening change processes during periods of misalignment; lessons that might not be learned any other way. Finally, industries and firms differ in ways that go beyond the three broad strategy types, and, as a result of these specific circumstances, the best IS role, structure, or sourcing for some Defenders might differ from the ones proposed here. While such arguments have merit, our findings as well as the overwhelming evidence reported in the research literature suggests that ceteris paribus, strategic IS alignment is the ideal situation.
76. See I. Mitroff, Stakeholders of the Organizational Mind, (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1983). Yet, simply noting that we adopt the conception of ideal types does not immunize us from criticism. Indeed, one of the major criticisms of ideal types is that they oversimplify. For example, Miles and Snow's framework on business strategy has been criticized as over simplistic, naïve, and inappropriate at the "corporate" level. Some of these critics feel it is better suited when the unit of analysis is the business unit rather than the corporation. A similar criticism was leveled against Nolan's "Stages of IS Growth." See R. Nolan, "Managing the Computer Resource: A Stage Hypothesis," Communications of the ACM, 16/7 (July 1973). Some researchers felt that Nolan's unit of analysis should have been the business unit and not the entire corporation. The same argument can be made about our research Further research is needed to examine whether it might make more sense to have the business unit as the unit of analysis, dealing with strategic alignment for each business unit and then combining all business units to form corporate-level strategic alignment. Despite these limitations such
77. See I. Mitroff, Stakeholders of the Organizational Mind, (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1983). Yet, simply noting that we adopt the conception of ideal types does not immunize us from criticism. Indeed, one of the major criticisms of ideal types is that they oversimplify. For example, Miles and Snow's framework on business strategy has been criticized as over simplistic, naïve, and inappropriate at the "corporate" level. Some of these critics feel it is better suited when the unit of analysis is the business unit rather than the corporation. A similar criticism was leveled against Nolan's "Stages of IS Growth." See R. Nolan, "Managing the Computer Resource: A Stage Hypothesis," Communications of the ACM, 16/7 (July 1973). Some researchers felt that Nolan's unit of analysis should have been the business unit and not the entire corporation. The same argument can be made about our research Further research is needed to examine whether it might make more sense to have the business unit as the unit of analysis, dealing with strategic alignment for each business unit and then combining all business units to form corporate-level strategic alignment. Despite these limitations such "simplistic frameworks" have been found quite effective. As was the case with Nolan, such frameworks are widely used because they are considered helpful. Practitioners have tended to find the parsimonious nature of such frameworks beneficial and use them - if for nothing else, as "rules of thumb" or helpful aides.
78. Alpha's net earning per share decreased steadily from 1986 to 1992, before showing an upward trend from 1992 to 1997.
79. Senior management's ominous warnings to us about Alpha's long-term future proved to be well founded. Alpha's net earning per share started declining from 1997 The company has struggled considerably over the past several years culminating in its being delisted from the NASDAQ and eventually being made inactive. While we are reluctant to say that the company's inability to achieve strategic alignment was the sole cause, we believe it certainly contributed to the company's current crisis.
80. Continuous change in business strategy can cause IS significant problems because it will have difficulty planning which applications to develop and maintain, which infrastructure to put into place, which architecture to adopt, and so on.
81. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
82. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
83. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
84. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
85. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
86. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
87. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
88. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
89. We are aware of the possible criticism of attempting to generalize from what is admittedly a small sample. However, we believe our results are generalizable for two reasons. First, the three cases are very diverse in several respects: Alpha is very small while Beta and Gamma are quite large; Alpha is based in the U.S., Beta in Australia, and Gamma being the U.S. subsidiary of a multinational corporation; and they are all in very different industries. This approach is consistent with the Eisenhardt's suggestions on using diverse organizations to enhance the generalizability of the resulting model. See K.M. Eisenhardt, "Building Theories from Case Study Research," Academy of Management Review. 14/4 (October 1989): 532-550. Eisenhardt also cites studies that have followed similar diverse sampling, including Gersick as well as Harris and Sutton. See C. Gersick, "Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development," Academy of Management Journal, 31/1 (March 1988): 9-41; S. Harris and R. Sutton, "Functions of Parting Ceremonies in Dying Organizations," Academy of Management Journal, 29/1 (March 1986): 5-30 Second, while our conclusions are based on only three cases, the results of other research studies are generally consistent with ours, e.g., Henderson and Venkatraman (1992), op. cit.; Brown and Magill (1994), op. cit.; Chan et al. (1997), op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.; Sauer et al., op. cit.; Sabherwal and Chan, op. cit.
90. We recognize that there are numerous barriers to the synchronized movement in strategic IS alignment, e.g., legacy systems, uncertain business environments, inertia, and other externalities.
91. These were the main factors, although some other related factors were identified as well, including personnel changes and problematic planning processes.
92. M.L. Tushman and C.A. O'Reilly, "Ambidextrous Organizations: Managing Evolutionary and Revolutionary Change," California Management Review, 38/4 (Summer 1996): 8-30. On the other hand, researchers such as Itami and Numagami [op. cit.] have argued that such paradoxical decisions might not be bad even if it does cause misalignment since they believe that IS should stay one step ahead of the business strategy so as to encourage innovation.
93. M.L. Tushman and C.A. O'Reilly, "Ambidextrous Organizations: Managing Evolutionary and Revolutionary Change," California Management Review, 38/4 (Summer 1996): 8-30. On the other hand, researchers such as Itami and Numagami [op. cit.] have argued that such paradoxical decisions might not be bad even if it does cause misalignment since they believe that IS should stay one step ahead of the business strategy so as to encourage innovation.
94. Cyert and March examined sequential attention to goals using the real example of how in a crane company the goal of safety temporarily replaced the profit motive following a fatality at the workplace. However, as the memories of the accident faded, the objectives gradually reverted to the more traditional order. See R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963).
95. J.F. Rockart, "The Line Takes the Leadership - IS Management in a Wired Society," Sloan Management Review, 29/4 (Summer 1988): 57-64; J. Ward and J. Peppard, "Reconciling the IT/Business Relationship: A Troubled Marriage in Need of Guidance," Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 5/1 (1996): 37-65; Lederer and Mendelow, op. cit., pp. 525-544; Peppard and Ward, op. cit.
96. J.F. Rockart, "The Line Takes the Leadership - IS Management in a Wired Society," Sloan Management Review, 29/4 (Summer 1988): 57-64; J. Ward and J. Peppard, "Reconciling the IT/Business Relationship: A Troubled Marriage in Need of Guidance," Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 5/1 (1996): 37-65; Lederer and Mendelow, op. cit., pp. 525-544; Peppard and Ward, op. cit.
97. J.F. Rockart, "The Line Takes the Leadership - IS Management in a Wired Society," Sloan Management Review, 29/4 (Summer 1988): 57-64; J. Ward and J. Peppard, "Reconciling the IT/Business Relationship: A Troubled Marriage in Need of Guidance," Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 5/1 (1996): 37-65; Lederer and Mendelow, op. cit., pp. 525-544; Peppard and Ward, op. cit.
98. J.F. Rockart, "The Line Takes the Leadership - IS Management in a Wired Society," Sloan Management Review, 29/4 (Summer 1988): 57-64; J. Ward and J. Peppard, "Reconciling the IT/Business Relationship: A Troubled Marriage in Need of Guidance," Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 5/1 (1996): 37-65; Lederer and Mendelow, op. cit., pp. 525-544; Peppard and Ward, op. cit.
99. The changes made by one CEO, who focused primarily on cutting costs through elimination of jobs, were not considered significant enough and another CEO had replaced him.
100. This might be a result of the "groupthink" phenomenon, characterized by strong agreement, pressure to conform, and dismissal of opposing ideas. Consequently, the participants individually, and the group as a whole, ignore potential problems and overestimate the likelihood of success. See I.L. Janis, Victims of Groupthink (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1972).
101. Itami and Numagami, op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.
102. Itami and Numagami, op. cit.; Yetton et al., op. cit.
103. J.B. Quinn, Strategies for Change: Logical Incrementalism (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1980).
104. I. Priogine and I. Stengers, Order out of Chaos: Man's new Dialogue with Nature (New York: Bantam Books, 1984).
105. See R. McDermott, "Why Information Technology Inspired But Cannot Deliver Knowledge Management," California Management Review, 41/4 (Summer 1999): 103-117; T.H. Davenport, J.G. Harris, D.W. De Long, and A.L. Jacobson, "Data to Knowledge to Results: Building an Analytical Capability," California Management Review, 43/2 (Winter 2001): 117-138; I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge-Creating Company (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995).
106. See R. McDermott, "Why Information Technology Inspired But Cannot Deliver Knowledge Management," California Management Review, 41/4 (Summer 1999): 103-117; T.H. Davenport, J.G. Harris, D.W. De Long, and A.L. Jacobson, "Data to Knowledge to Results: Building an Analytical Capability," California Management Review, 43/2 (Winter 2001): 117-138; I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge-Creating Company (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995).
107. See R. McDermott, "Why Information Technology Inspired But Cannot Deliver Knowledge Management," California Management Review, 41/4 (Summer 1999): 103-117; T.H. Davenport, J.G. Harris, D.W. De Long, and A.L. Jacobson, "Data to Knowledge to Results: Building an Analytical Capability," California Management Review, 43/2 (Winter 2001): 117-138; I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge-Creating Company (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995).
108. R.O. Mason and I.I. Mitroff, Challenging Strategic Planning Assumptions: Theory, Cases and Techniques, (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1981).
109. The term "transitional figures" refers to "people with whom adults in transition form special relationships, from whom they gain encouragement and learn new ways to live and work." C.J.G. Gersick, "Revolutionary Change Theories: A Multilevel Exploration of the Punctuated Equilibrium Paradigm," Academy of Management Review, 16/1 (January 1991): 10-36, at 27-28. We apply the term to the forces that are external to the organization but that perform a similar role.