From the yazoo Mississippi delta to the urban communities of the midwest: Conversations with rural African American women

Frontiers

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 126-144

  Grim, Valerie ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035652239     PISSN: 01609009     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3347074     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Eva Glenn, interview with the author, April 28, 1988, Drew, Mississippi. For a discussion, see also Douglas Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993); and Darlene Clark Hine and Kathleen Thompson, A Shining Thread of Hope: The History of Black Women in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1998).
2. Eva Glenn, interview with the author, April 28, 1988, Drew, Mississippi. For a discussion, see also Douglas Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993); and Darlene Clark Hine and Kathleen Thompson, A Shining Thread of Hope: The History of Black Women in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1998).
3. Mae Liza Williams, interview with the author, April 30, 1989, Minter City, Mississippi. For a discussion of life in general for African Americans and of black women in particular, see Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1973); David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); and Richard W. Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).
4. Mae Liza Williams, interview with the author, April 30, 1989, Minter City, Mississippi. For a discussion of life in general for African Americans and of black women in particular, see Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1973); David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); and Richard W. Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).
5. Mae Liza Williams, interview with the author, April 30, 1989, Minter City, Mississippi. For a discussion of life in general for African Americans and of black women in particular, see Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1973); David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); and Richard W. Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).
6. Mae Liza Williams, interview with the author, April 30, 1989, Minter City, Mississippi. For a discussion of life in general for African Americans and of black women in particular, see Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1973); David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); and Richard W. Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).
7. Estella Thomas, interview with the author, April 30, 1989, Drew, Mississippi; and Estella Thomas, interview with author, May 25, 1991, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of how African American women have responded to crises and stresses they have experienced due to segregation, exploitation, and domination, see Robin Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South," Journal of American History 80:1 (1993): 75-112; Joe William Trotter, "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-69; and Kenneth Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Post-Industrial Era," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 470-504.
8. Estella Thomas, interview with the author, April 30, 1989, Drew, Mississippi; and Estella Thomas, interview with author, May 25, 1991, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of how African American women have responded to crises and stresses they have experienced due to segregation, exploitation, and domination, see Robin Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South," Journal of American History 80:1 (1993): 75-112; Joe William Trotter, "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-69; and Kenneth Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Post-Industrial Era," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 470-504.
9. Estella Thomas, interview with the author, April 30, 1989, Drew, Mississippi; and Estella Thomas, interview with author, May 25, 1991, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of how African American women have responded to crises and stresses they have experienced due to segregation, exploitation, and domination, see Robin Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South," Journal of American History 80:1 (1993): 75-112; Joe William Trotter, "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-69; and Kenneth Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Post-Industrial Era," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 470-504.
10. Mary Alice Williams, interview with the author, December 21, 1990, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of the many issues that influenced black women's migration from the rural South, see Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks' Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1987); James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); and Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interest: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
11. Mary Alice Williams, interview with the author, December 21, 1990, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of the many issues that influenced black women's migration from the rural South, see Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks' Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1987); James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); and Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interest: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
12. Mary Alice Williams, interview with the author, December 21, 1990, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of the many issues that influenced black women's migration from the rural South, see Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks' Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1987); James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); and Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interest: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
13. Willie Ester McWilliams, interview with the author, May 1, 1990, Drew, Mississippi; and Willie E. McWilliams, interview with author, June 30, 1997, Detroit, Michigan. For a discussion, see James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); Allen B. Ballard, One More Day's Journey: The Story of a Family and a People (New York: McGraw Hill, 1984); and Joe William Trotter, Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariate, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985).
14. Willie Ester McWilliams, interview with the author, May 1, 1990, Drew, Mississippi; and Willie E. McWilliams, interview with author, June 30, 1997, Detroit, Michigan. For a discussion, see James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); Allen B. Ballard, One More Day's Journey: The Story of a Family and a People (New York: McGraw Hill, 1984); and Joe William Trotter, Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariate, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985).
15. Willie Ester McWilliams, interview with the author, May 1, 1990, Drew, Mississippi; and Willie E. McWilliams, interview with author, June 30, 1997, Detroit, Michigan. For a discussion, see James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); Allen B. Ballard, One More Day's Journey: The Story of a Family and a People (New York: McGraw Hill, 1984); and Joe William Trotter, Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariate, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985).
16. Annie West, interview with the author, June 25, 1994, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of how importanct the issues of safety and protection were to African American women in rural and urban communities, see Arna W. Bontemps and Jack Conroy, Any Place But Here (New York: Hill and Wang, 1966); and Elizabeth Clark-Lewis, Living In, Living Out: African American Domestics in Washington, D. C., 1910-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Press, 1994).
17. Annie West, interview with the author, June 25, 1994, St. Louis, Missouri. For a discussion of how importanct the issues of safety and protection were to African American women in rural and urban communities, see Arna W. Bontemps and Jack Conroy, Any Place But Here (New York: Hill and Wang, 1966); and Elizabeth Clark-Lewis, Living In, Living Out: African American Domestics in Washington, D. C., 1910-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Press, 1994).
18. Jessie Easter, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 15, 1991. For a discussion of the feeling of enclosure and the problems associated with living in a closed society, see Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York: Dial Press, 1968); and Reynolds Farley, "The Urbanization of Negroes in the United States," Journal of Social History 1:1 (1968): 241-258. See also Kathryn Grover, Make a Way Somehow: African-American Life in a Northern Community, 1790-1965 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1994).
19. Jessie Easter, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 15, 1991. For a discussion of the feeling of enclosure and the problems associated with living in a closed society, see Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York: Dial Press, 1968); and Reynolds Farley, "The Urbanization of Negroes in the United States," Journal of Social History 1:1 (1968): 241-258. See also Kathryn Grover, Make a Way Somehow: African-American Life in a Northern Community, 1790-1965 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1994).
20. Jessie Easter, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 15, 1991. For a discussion of the feeling of enclosure and the problems associated with living in a closed society, see Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York: Dial Press, 1968); and Reynolds Farley, "The Urbanization of Negroes in the United States," Journal of Social History 1:1 (1968): 241-258. See also Kathryn Grover, Make a Way Somehow: African-American Life in a Northern Community, 1790-1965 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1994).
21. Rosie Fountain, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 22, 1993. For a comparative discussion of how rural black women attempted to maintain their cultural heritage and rural values in northern, eastern, and western communities, see Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle For Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1945 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1993); and Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle Central District, 1870 Through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington, 1994).
22. Rosie Fountain, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 22, 1993. For a comparative discussion of how rural black women attempted to maintain their cultural heritage and rural values in northern, eastern, and western communities, see Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle For Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1945 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1993); and Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle Central District, 1870 Through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington, 1994).
23. Clementine Coleman, interview with the author, May 25, 1997, St. Louis, Missouri. See Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press, 1975); and Carole Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). See also Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
24. Clementine Coleman, interview with the author, May 25, 1997, St. Louis, Missouri. See Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press, 1975); and Carole Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). See also Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
25. Clementine Coleman, interview with the author, May 25, 1997, St. Louis, Missouri. See Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press, 1975); and Carole Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). See also Joe William Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
26. For a discussion, see Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family From Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Dolores Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985); Darlene Clark Hine, "Black Migration to the Urban Midwest: The Gender Dimension, 1915-1945," in Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective, 126-46 and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Wilker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14:3 (1989): 610-33.
27. For a discussion, see Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family From Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Dolores Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985); Darlene Clark Hine, "Black Migration to the Urban Midwest: The Gender Dimension, 1915-1945," in Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective, 126-46 and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Wilker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14:3 (1989): 610-33.
28. For a discussion, see Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family From Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Dolores Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985); Darlene Clark Hine, "Black Migration to the Urban Midwest: The Gender Dimension, 1915-1945," in Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective, 126-46 and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Wilker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14:3 (1989): 610-33.
29. For a discussion, see Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family From Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Dolores Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985); Darlene Clark Hine, "Black Migration to the Urban Midwest: The Gender Dimension, 1915-1945," in Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective, 126-46 and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Wilker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14:3 (1989): 610-33.
30. For a discussion, see Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family From Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Dolores Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985); Darlene Clark Hine, "Black Migration to the Urban Midwest: The Gender Dimension, 1915-1945," in Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective, 126-46 and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Wilker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14:3 (1989): 610-33.
31. Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction (1976, reprint, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1986), 45-52. See also Kenneth L. Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in The State of Afro American History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1986), 91-122; Joe William Trotter, Jr., "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-57; Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It; and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants Community, and Working-Class Activism, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
32. Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction (1976, reprint, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1986), 45-52. See also Kenneth L. Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in The State of Afro American History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1986), 91-122; Joe William Trotter, Jr., "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-57; Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It; and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants Community, and Working-Class Activism, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
33. Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction (1976, reprint, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1986), 45-52. See also Kenneth L. Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in The State of Afro American History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1986), 91-122; Joe William Trotter, Jr., "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-57; Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It; and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants Community, and Working-Class Activism, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
34. Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction (1976, reprint, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1986), 45-52. See also Kenneth L. Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in The State of Afro American History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1986), 91-122; Joe William Trotter, Jr., "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-57; Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It; and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants Community, and Working-Class Activism, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
35. Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction (1976, reprint, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1986), 45-52. See also Kenneth L. Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in The State of Afro American History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1986), 91-122; Joe William Trotter, Jr., "African Americans in the City: The Industrial Era, 1900-1950," Journal of Urban History 21:4 (1995): 438-57; Thomas, Life For Us Is What We Make It; and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants Community, and Working-Class Activism, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
36. Rita Davis, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, July 11, 1994. For a discussion of health and other living conditions faced by African American rural women migrants when they arrived into midwestern cities, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow, Vincent P. Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths: Autobiography and the Making of the African-American Intellectual Tradition (New York: Scribner, 1995); Darrel E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); and James O. Horton, Free People of Color: Inside the African American Community (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993).
37. Rita Davis, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, July 11, 1994. For a discussion of health and other living conditions faced by African American rural women migrants when they arrived into midwestern cities, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow, Vincent P. Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths: Autobiography and the Making of the African-American Intellectual Tradition (New York: Scribner, 1995); Darrel E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); and James O. Horton, Free People of Color: Inside the African American Community (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993).
38. Rita Davis, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, July 11, 1994. For a discussion of health and other living conditions faced by African American rural women migrants when they arrived into midwestern cities, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow, Vincent P. Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths: Autobiography and the Making of the African-American Intellectual Tradition (New York: Scribner, 1995); Darrel E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); and James O. Horton, Free People of Color: Inside the African American Community (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993).
39. Rita Davis, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, July 11, 1994. For a discussion of health and other living conditions faced by African American rural women migrants when they arrived into midwestern cities, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow, Vincent P. Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths: Autobiography and the Making of the African-American Intellectual Tradition (New York: Scribner, 1995); Darrel E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); and James O. Horton, Free People of Color: Inside the African American Community (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993).
40. Rita Davis, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, July 11, 1994. For a discussion of health and other living conditions faced by African American rural women migrants when they arrived into midwestern cities, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow, Vincent P. Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths: Autobiography and the Making of the African-American Intellectual Tradition (New York: Scribner, 1995); Darrel E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); and James O. Horton, Free People of Color: Inside the African American Community (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993).
41. Dollie Williams, interview with author, Columbus, Ohio, June 1, 1997. For additional discussion, see Phillips, Alabama North; and Lillian Serece Williams, Strangers in the Land of Paradise: The Creation of an African American Community, 1900-1940 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).
42. Dollie Williams, interview with author, Columbus, Ohio, June 1, 1997. For additional discussion, see Phillips, Alabama North; and Lillian Serece Williams, Strangers in the Land of Paradise: The Creation of an African American Community, 1900-1940 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).
43. Mary Tucker, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 11, 1992. For a discussion, see Ulf Hannerz, Soulside: Inquiries Into Ghetto Culture and Community (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Tamara Hareven, Family and Kin in Urban Communities, 1700-1930 (New York: New Viewpoints Press, 1977); and Robert B. Hill, The Strengths of Black Families (New York: Emerson Hall Publishers, 1972).
44. Mary Tucker, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 11, 1992. For a discussion, see Ulf Hannerz, Soulside: Inquiries Into Ghetto Culture and Community (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Tamara Hareven, Family and Kin in Urban Communities, 1700-1930 (New York: New Viewpoints Press, 1977); and Robert B. Hill, The Strengths of Black Families (New York: Emerson Hall Publishers, 1972).
45. Mary Tucker, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 11, 1992. For a discussion, see Ulf Hannerz, Soulside: Inquiries Into Ghetto Culture and Community (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); Tamara Hareven, Family and Kin in Urban Communities, 1700-1930 (New York: New Viewpoints Press, 1977); and Robert B. Hill, The Strengths of Black Families (New York: Emerson Hall Publishers, 1972).
46. Bernice Ware, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 6, 1994. See also Andrew Billingsley, Black Families in White America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968).
47. Jessie Mae White, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, October 12, 1996. For a discussion of rural black women migrants' concerns about food, diet, nutrition, and health, see Lehmann, The Promised Land; Thomas, Life Is What We Make It; and Lewis, In Their Own Interest.
48. Jessie Mae White, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, October 12, 1996. For a discussion of rural black women migrants' concerns about food, diet, nutrition, and health, see Lehmann, The Promised Land; Thomas, Life Is What We Make It; and Lewis, In Their Own Interest.
49. Jessie Mae White, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, October 12, 1996. For a discussion of rural black women migrants' concerns about food, diet, nutrition, and health, see Lehmann, The Promised Land; Thomas, Life Is What We Make It; and Lewis, In Their Own Interest.
50. Mary Alice Williams, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missiouri, December 10, 1992.
51. Ann Gordon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, November 15, 1993.
52. Mary Tucker, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 11, 1992.
53. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992.
54. Mary Tucker, interview with the author.
55. Canary Coleman, interview with the author. See also Lehmann, Promised Land; Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousands Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1996).
56. Canary Coleman, interview with the author. See also Lehmann, Promised Land; Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousands Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1996).
57. Rosie Fountain, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, September 15, 1994. For a discussion, see Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective.
58. Rose Jackson, interview with author, Detroit, Michigan, August 5, 1991. For a discussion of the kinds of jobs that were available to rural African American women migrants, see Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto (New York: Harper and Row, 1968); St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1945); and Carol Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1975).
59. Rose Jackson, interview with author, Detroit, Michigan, August 5, 1991. For a discussion of the kinds of jobs that were available to rural African American women migrants, see Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto (New York: Harper and Row, 1968); St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1945); and Carol Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1975).
60. Rose Jackson, interview with author, Detroit, Michigan, August 5, 1991. For a discussion of the kinds of jobs that were available to rural African American women migrants, see Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto (New York: Harper and Row, 1968); St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1945); and Carol Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1975).
61. Ann Hearon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, May 28, 1995. For a discussion of racial interactions between blacks and whites as well as other ethnic groups, see John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburg, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (New York: Arno Press, 1968); and Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial.
62. Ann Hearon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, May 28, 1995. For a discussion of racial interactions between blacks and whites as well as other ethnic groups, see John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburg, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (New York: Arno Press, 1968); and Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial.
63. Ann Hearon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, May 28, 1995. For a discussion of racial interactions between blacks and whites as well as other ethnic groups, see John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburg, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (New York: Arno Press, 1968); and Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial.
64. Ann Hearon, interview with the author. See also Mary White Ovington, Half a Man: The Status of the Negro in New York (1911, reprint, New York: Hill and Wang, 1969); and Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History.
65. Ann Hearon, interview with the author. See also Mary White Ovington, Half a Man: The Status of the Negro in New York (1911, reprint, New York: Hill and Wang, 1969); and Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History.
66. Betty Williams, interview with author, Indianapolis, Indiana, June 21, 1995. For a comparison between southern and northern racism and its impact own rural migrants and immigrants to American urban cities, see Josef J. Barton, Peasants and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians, and Slovaks in an American City, 1890-1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975); and Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, and Unequal (New York: Scribner's, 1992).
67. Betty Williams, interview with author, Indianapolis, Indiana, June 21, 1995. For a comparison between southern and northern racism and its impact own rural migrants and immigrants to American urban cities, see Josef J. Barton, Peasants and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians, and Slovaks in an American City, 1890-1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975); and Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, and Unequal (New York: Scribner's, 1992).
68. Patricia Adams, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 13, 1991. For a discussion of the treatment of African American women in the public and private spheres, see Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; Billingsley, Black Families in White America; and Andrew Billingsley, Climbing Jacob's Ladder: The Enduring Legacy of African-American Families (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
69. Patricia Adams, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 13, 1991. For a discussion of the treatment of African American women in the public and private spheres, see Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; Billingsley, Black Families in White America; and Andrew Billingsley, Climbing Jacob's Ladder: The Enduring Legacy of African-American Families (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
70. Patricia Adams, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 13, 1991. For a discussion of the treatment of African American women in the public and private spheres, see Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; Billingsley, Black Families in White America; and Andrew Billingsley, Climbing Jacob's Ladder: The Enduring Legacy of African-American Families (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
71. Linda McWilliams, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, October 15, 1995, and Chicago, Illinois, November 15, 1999. For a discussion of issues pertaining to African Americans' self-imposed color prejudices and discriminations, see Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths; and Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).
72. Linda McWilliams, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, October 15, 1995, and Chicago, Illinois, November 15, 1999. For a discussion of issues pertaining to African Americans' self-imposed color prejudices and discriminations, see Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths; and Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).
73. Doris Lindsey, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, May 29, 1997. For a discussion of available economic opportunities in the cities and how rural black women entered the work place, see Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial; Spear, Black Chicago; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis; and Trotter, Black Milwaukee.
74. Doris Lindsey, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, May 29, 1997. For a discussion of available economic opportunities in the cities and how rural black women entered the work place, see Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial; Spear, Black Chicago; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis; and Trotter, Black Milwaukee.
75. Doris Lindsey, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, May 29, 1997. For a discussion of available economic opportunities in the cities and how rural black women entered the work place, see Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial; Spear, Black Chicago; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis; and Trotter, Black Milwaukee.
76. Doris Lindsey, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, May 29, 1997. For a discussion of available economic opportunities in the cities and how rural black women entered the work place, see Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial; Spear, Black Chicago; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis; and Trotter, Black Milwaukee.
77. Bernice Black, interview with the author, Columbus, Ohio, May 30, 1997. For a discussion, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History, Kathryn Grover, Make a Way Somehow; and Hacker, Two Nations.
78. Bernice Black, interview with the author, Columbus, Ohio, May 30, 1997. For a discussion, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History, Kathryn Grover, Make a Way Somehow; and Hacker, Two Nations.
79. Bernice Black, interview with the author, Columbus, Ohio, May 30, 1997. For a discussion, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History, Kathryn Grover, Make a Way Somehow; and Hacker, Two Nations.
80. Ann Gordon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, November 15, 1993. For a discussion of how African American women confronted issues of sexism in the home, work place, church, and larger African American community, see Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1978); and Hacker, Two Nations.
81. Ann Gordon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, November 15, 1993. For a discussion of how African American women confronted issues of sexism in the home, work place, church, and larger African American community, see Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1978); and Hacker, Two Nations.
82. Ann Gordon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, November 15, 1993. For a discussion of how African American women confronted issues of sexism in the home, work place, church, and larger African American community, see Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow; William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1978); and Hacker, Two Nations.
83. Ann Gordon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, November 15, 1993.
84. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992. For a discussion, see Philip S. Foner and Ronald L. Lewis, Black Workers: A Documentary History From Colonial Times to the Present (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1989).
85. Annie Harris, interview with the author, Columbus, Ohio, July 25, 1996.
86. Linda Rice, interview with the author, Indianapolis, Indiana, August 10, 1995.
87. Linsey Billups, interview with the author, Indianapolis, Indiana August 12, 1995. For a discussion, see Vincent P. Franklin, "Education For Life: Adult Education Programs For African Americans in Northern Cities, 1900-1942," in Harvey Newfeldt and Leo McGee, Education of the African American Adult: An Historical Overview (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1990).
88. Linsey Billups, interview with the author, Indianapolis, Indiana August 12, 1995. For a discussion, see Vincent P. Franklin, "Education For Life: Adult Education Programs For African Americans in Northern Cities, 1900-1942," in Harvey Newfeldt and Leo McGee, Education of the African American Adult: An Historical Overview (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1990).
89. Sherri Hooper, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, September 7, 1995. For a discussion of African American parents' involvement in their children's education, see Rayford Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro (New York: Collier, 1965); and Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial.
90. Sherri Hooper, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, September 7, 1995. For a discussion of African American parents' involvement in their children's education, see Rayford Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro (New York: Collier, 1965); and Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial.
91. Ann Gordon, interview with the author, Detroit, Michigan, November 15, 1993.
92. Linda Robinson, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, September 23, 1994.
93. Diann Walters, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, September 26, 1994. See Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History.
94. Delores Brown, interview with the author, Columbus, Ohio, June 5, 1997.
95. Annie Williams, interview with the author. See also Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths.
96. Joyce Fountain, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, July 10, 1998.
97. Mary A. Williams, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 10, 1992.
98. Maxine Johnson, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, August 10, 1995. For a discussion, see Lehmann, Promised Land.
99. Dollie Rogers, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, October 29, 1994.
100. Liza Dillard, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, December 20, 1997. For a discussion of this issue, see Phillips, Alabama North.
101. Mary Tucker, interview with the author.
102. Rebecca Fitzpatrick, interview with the author, Indianapolis, Indiana, August 16, 1990.
103. Fannie Williams, interview with the author, Chicago, Illinois, June 10, 1991.
104. Eva Glenn, interview with the author, Drew, Mississippi, April 28, 1988. For a discussion, see Borchert, Alley Life in Washington; Ballard, One More Day's Journey; Grover, Make a Way Somehow; Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths; and Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone.
105. Eva Glenn, interview with the author, Drew, Mississippi, April 28, 1988. For a discussion, see Borchert, Alley Life in Washington; Ballard, One More Day's Journey; Grover, Make a Way Somehow; Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths; and Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone.
106. Eva Glenn, interview with the author, Drew, Mississippi, April 28, 1988. For a discussion, see Borchert, Alley Life in Washington; Ballard, One More Day's Journey; Grover, Make a Way Somehow; Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths; and Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone.
107. Eva Glenn, interview with the author, Drew, Mississippi, April 28, 1988. For a discussion, see Borchert, Alley Life in Washington; Ballard, One More Day's Journey; Grover, Make a Way Somehow; Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths; and Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone.
108. Eva Glenn, interview with the author, Drew, Mississippi, April 28, 1988. For a discussion, see Borchert, Alley Life in Washington; Ballard, One More Day's Journey; Grover, Make a Way Somehow; Franklin, Living Our Stories, Telling Our Truths; and Marks, Farewell - We're Good and Gone.
109. Joyce Fountain, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, November 19, 1997. For a discussion rural women migrants' concerns for their children, especially their daughters, see Elliot Liebow, Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967); Lehmann, Promised Land; and Kenneth W. Goings, "Blacks in the Rural North: Paulding County, Ohio, 1860-1900," (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1977). See also Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis.
110. Joyce Fountain, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, November 19, 1997. For a discussion rural women migrants' concerns for their children, especially their daughters, see Elliot Liebow, Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967); Lehmann, Promised Land; and Kenneth W. Goings, "Blacks in the Rural North: Paulding County, Ohio, 1860-1900," (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1977). See also Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis.
111. Joyce Fountain, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, November 19, 1997. For a discussion rural women migrants' concerns for their children, especially their daughters, see Elliot Liebow, Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967); Lehmann, Promised Land; and Kenneth W. Goings, "Blacks in the Rural North: Paulding County, Ohio, 1860-1900," (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1977). See also Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis.
112. Joyce Fountain, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, November 19, 1997. For a discussion rural women migrants' concerns for their children, especially their daughters, see Elliot Liebow, Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967); Lehmann, Promised Land; and Kenneth W. Goings, "Blacks in the Rural North: Paulding County, Ohio, 1860-1900," (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1977). See also Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis.
113. Shirley Bullock, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, April 15, 1998. See also Nicholas Lehmann, Promised Land; and Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective.
114. Shirley Bullock, interview with the author, Minneapolis, Minnesota, April 15, 1998. See also Nicholas Lehmann, Promised Land; and Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective.
115. Faye Williams, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, September 15, 1997. See Liebow, Talley's Corner, and Lehmann, Promised Land.
116. Faye Williams, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, September 15, 1997. See Liebow, Talley's Corner, and Lehmann, Promised Land.
117. Irene Scott, interview with the author, Drew, Mississippi, May 1, 1990.
118. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992. For a discussion of occupational opportunities and changes among migrants in midwestern cities between 1945-1980, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History; Beverly A. Bunch-Lyons, "And They Came: The Migration of African American Women From the South to Cincinnati, Ohio, 1900-1950," (Ph.D. diss., Miami University, Ohio, 1955); Jack S. Blocker, "Black Migration to Muncie, 1860-1930," Indiana Magazine of History, December 1996, 297-320; Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in Hine, The State of Afro American History; and James E. DeVries, Race, Kinship, and Community in a Midwestern Town: The Black Experience in Monroe, Michigan, 1900-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
119. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992. For a discussion of occupational opportunities and changes among migrants in midwestern cities between 1945-1980, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History; Beverly A. Bunch-Lyons, "And They Came: The Migration of African American Women From the South to Cincinnati, Ohio, 1900-1950," (Ph.D. diss., Miami University, Ohio, 1955); Jack S. Blocker, "Black Migration to Muncie, 1860-1930," Indiana Magazine of History, December 1996, 297-320; Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in Hine, The State of Afro American History; and James E. DeVries, Race, Kinship, and Community in a Midwestern Town: The Black Experience in Monroe, Michigan, 1900-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
120. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992. For a discussion of occupational opportunities and changes among migrants in midwestern cities between 1945-1980, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History; Beverly A. Bunch-Lyons, "And They Came: The Migration of African American Women From the South to Cincinnati, Ohio, 1900-1950," (Ph.D. diss., Miami University, Ohio, 1955); Jack S. Blocker, "Black Migration to Muncie, 1860-1930," Indiana Magazine of History, December 1996, 297-320; Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in Hine, The State of Afro American History; and James E. DeVries, Race, Kinship, and Community in a Midwestern Town: The Black Experience in Monroe, Michigan, 1900-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
121. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992. For a discussion of occupational opportunities and changes among migrants in midwestern cities between 1945-1980, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History; Beverly A. Bunch-Lyons, "And They Came: The Migration of African American Women From the South to Cincinnati, Ohio, 1900-1950," (Ph.D. diss., Miami University, Ohio, 1955); Jack S. Blocker, "Black Migration to Muncie, 1860-1930," Indiana Magazine of History, December 1996, 297-320; Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in Hine, The State of Afro American History; and James E. DeVries, Race, Kinship, and Community in a Midwestern Town: The Black Experience in Monroe, Michigan, 1900-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
122. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992. For a discussion of occupational opportunities and changes among migrants in midwestern cities between 1945-1980, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History; Beverly A. Bunch-Lyons, "And They Came: The Migration of African American Women From the South to Cincinnati, Ohio, 1900-1950," (Ph.D. diss., Miami University, Ohio, 1955); Jack S. Blocker, "Black Migration to Muncie, 1860-1930," Indiana Magazine of History, December 1996, 297-320; Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in Hine, The State of Afro American History; and James E. DeVries, Race, Kinship, and Community in a Midwestern Town: The Black Experience in Monroe, Michigan, 1900-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
123. Canary Coleman, interview with the author, St. Louis, Missouri, December 12, 1992. For a discussion of occupational opportunities and changes among migrants in midwestern cities between 1945-1980, see Goings and Mohl, The New African American Urban History; Beverly A. Bunch-Lyons, "And They Came: The Migration of African American Women From the South to Cincinnati, Ohio, 1900-1950," (Ph.D. diss., Miami University, Ohio, 1955); Jack S. Blocker, "Black Migration to Muncie, 1860-1930," Indiana Magazine of History, December 1996, 297-320; Kusmer, "The Black Urban Experience in American History," in Hine, The State of Afro American History; and James E. DeVries, Race, Kinship, and Community in a Midwestern Town: The Black Experience in Monroe, Michigan, 1900-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).