Participation beyond citizenship: Migrants' associations in Italy and Spain

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 69-89

  Danese, Gaia ^a  

^a Centro Studi di Politica Internazionale   (United States)

Author keywords

Association; Citizenship; Immigration; Italy; Migrants; Participation; Representation; Spain

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; ECONOMICS; ETHNOLOGY; HISTORY; ITALY; LEGAL ASPECT; MIGRATION; ORGANIZATION; SPAIN; VOLUNTARY WORKER;

CULTURAL DIVERSITY; EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; ITALY; ORGANIZATIONS; SPAIN; VOLUNTARY WORKERS;

EID: 0035650349     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/003132201128811070     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. This article is based primarily on fieldwork and interviews carried out between 1996 and 2000 as part of doctoral research on immigrants' associations and social networks in Italy and Spain, countries chosen as emblematic for Southern Europe, with highly comparable concerns vis-à-vis migration, especially regarding the three migrant groups that are the object of this study. The analysis developed here refers to the period 1985-98.
2. A simplified definition based on Jean Leca, 'Réflexions sur la participation politique des citoyens en France', in Yves Mény (ed.), Idéologies, partis politiques et groupes sociaux (Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques 1989), 129-56.
3. In 1995, 56.8 per cent of migrant workers were estimated to be irregularly employed in Italy (Censis-Sopemi 1995). The rate in Spain was estimated at 28.9 per cent in 1996 (C. Carrasco, 'Economia submergida y trabajador inmigrante', Migraciones, vol. 4, 1998, 9-33).
4. Such a notion has guided immigration studies of Northern Europe: see, for example, John Rex, Czarina Wilpert and Danièle Joly (eds), Immigrant Associations in Europe (Aldershot: Gower 1987) and Stephen Castles, Here for Good. Western Europe's New Ethnic Minorities (London: Pluto Press 1984).
5. Such a notion has guided immigration studies of Northern Europe: see, for example, John Rex, Czarina Wilpert and Danièle Joly (eds), Immigrant Associations in Europe (Aldershot: Gower 1987) and Stephen Castles, Here for Good. Western Europe's New Ethnic Minorities (London: Pluto Press 1984).
6. For a synthetic and critical formulation of the concept as defined by different authors, see Doug McAdam, 'Political opportunities. Conceptual origins, problems, future directions', in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald (eds), Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1996).
7. A. Melluci, 'The new social movements: a theoretical approach', Social Science Information, vol. 19, no. 2, 1983.
8. S. Tarrow, 'National politics and collective action: recent theory and research in Western Europe and the United States', Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 14, 1988, 421-41.
9. Note that the analysis I am developing does not ignore the role played by the state and its interests in the ideological construction of that space ('civil society' or 'voluntary sector') in which all of these organizations are supposed to act.
10. For a definition of 'exit' in this context, see O. Hirschmann, Face au déclin des entreprises et des institutions (Paris: L'Harmattan 1972).
11. Albert Bastenier and Felice Dassetto, Immigration et espace publique (Paris: L'Harmattan 1993); Catherine Neveu (ed.), Nations, frontières et immigration en Europe (Paris: L'Harmattan 1995).
12. Albert Bastenier and Felice Dassetto, Immigration et espace publique (Paris: L'Harmattan 1993); Catherine Neveu (ed.), Nations, frontières et immigration en Europe (Paris: L'Harmattan 1995).
13. In both countries a new immigration law has been recently approved (law no. 40/1998 in Italy and law no. 4/2000 in Spain), which are meant to establish a clear formalization of Italian and Spanish integration policy. I will base my analysis nonetheless on the previous legislation in both countries since it does not differ significantly from the new legislation in its basic orientation, and the effects of the new laws will not be evident for some time.
14. Luigi Graziano, 'Le pluralisme. Une analyse conceptuelle et comparative', Revue française de science politique, vol. 46, no. 2, 1996, 195-224.
15. Interview with R. Aragón Bombín, director of the Dirección General de Migraciónes (DGM, Office of Migration) of the Spanish Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales (MTAS, Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs) from 1993 to 1996, Madrid, 17 February 1996; interviews with the cabinet of the Ministry of Social Affairs, Rome, 6 June 1997.
16. In Spain only; in Italy trade unions do not compete with other associations to receive funding for activities on behalf of migrants. Therefore, like other associations, they can manage social services for migrants by stipulating procedures with the local council.
17. Italy seems to have recently become less strict on this point: local funding for specific projects such as educational centres for migrants' children is available exclusively to migrants' organizations; see for instance the offer of funds in 1997 from the municipal council of Rome, specifically addressed to organizations composed of non-EU immigrants in the Rome area.
18. Guido Bolaffi, Una politica per gli immigrati (Rome: Il Mulino 1996); MTAS-DGM, Plano para la integración social de los inmigrantes (Madrid 1994).
19. Guido Bolaffi, Una politica per gli immigrati (Rome: Il Mulino 1996); MTAS-DGM, Plano para la integración social de los inmigrantes (Madrid 1994).
20. For a definition of interculturalism, see the Council of Europe's 1991 report, 'Community and ethnic relations in Europe' (MG-CR (91) 1 final).
21. Note that the number of immigrants in Italy and Spain is low in comparison to the north of Europe: 1,240,721 foreigners regularly sojourn in Italy, around 2 per cent of the population (data from the Ministry of the Interior 1998, corrected by the author) and Spain counts 600,000 legally resident foreigners, around 1.6 per cent of its population (data from Ministry of the Interior 1997, corrected by the author).
22. MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1994 (Madrid 1994); MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1995 (Madrid 1995); MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1996 (Madrid 1996).
23. MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1994 (Madrid 1994); MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1995 (Madrid 1995); MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1996 (Madrid 1996).
24. MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1994 (Madrid 1994); MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1995 (Madrid 1995); MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1996 (Madrid 1996).
25. I am referring here to a three-sector model in which society is divided into three zones of activity: voluntary sector, state and market (Robert Wuthnow (ed.), Between States and Markets. The Voluntary Sector in Comparative Perspective (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press 1991)).
26. Ugo Ascoli, 'The Italian welfare state: between incrementalism and rationalism', in Robert R. Friedman, Neil Gilbert and Moshe Sherer (eds), Modern Welfare States. A Comparative View of Trends and Prospects (New York: New York University Press 1987).
27. Gregorio Rodríguez Cabrero and G. Monserrat Cordoniú, Las Entitades voluntarias en España. Institucionalización, estructura economica y desarollo asociativo (Madrid: MTAS 1996).
28. See Manuel Castells, Ciudad, democracia y socialismo (Madrid: Siglo XXI 1977); Perri 6 and Isabel Vidal (ed.), Delivering Welfare: Repositioning Non-profit and Cooperative Action in Western European Welfare States (Barcelona: Centre d'Iniciatives de l'Economia Social 1994); and Tomás Villasante, Las Democracias participativas (Madrid: HOAC 1995).
29. See Manuel Castells, Ciudad, democracia y socialismo (Madrid: Siglo XXI 1977); Perri 6 and Isabel Vidal (ed.), Delivering Welfare: Repositioning Non-profit and Cooperative Action in Western European Welfare States (Barcelona: Centre d'Iniciatives de l'Economia Social 1994); and Tomás Villasante, Las Democracias participativas (Madrid: HOAC 1995).
30. See Manuel Castells, Ciudad, democracia y socialismo (Madrid: Siglo XXI 1977); Perri 6 and Isabel Vidal (ed.), Delivering Welfare: Repositioning Non-profit and Cooperative Action in Western European Welfare States (Barcelona: Centre d'Iniciatives de l'Economia Social 1994); and Tomás Villasante, Las Democracias participativas (Madrid: HOAC 1995).
31. John Casey, 'El papel de las organizaciones no gubernamentales en la elaboración de las políticas publicas. El caso de la integración de los inmigrantes extranjeros en Cataluñia', Dossiers Barcelona Asociaciones, vol. 20, 1994.
32. Istituto di Ricerche Educative e Formative (IREF), Seconda Rapporto sull'associazionismo sociale (Rome: Aesse 1988).
33. IREF, Quinto Rapporto sull'associazionismo sociale (Rome: Acsse 1995).
34. 1998 data from the Spanish Ministry of the Interior, corrected by the author.
35. Ministry of the Interior, Relazione sulla presenza straniera in Italia e sulle situazioni di irregolarità, working paper, 1998.
36. Interview, ACLI, Rome, 4 June 1997.
37. Interview, Caritas, Rome, 28 May 1997.
38. Patrick Weil, La France et ses étrangers (Paris: Calmann-Lévy 1991); Riva Kastoryano, La France, l'Allemagne et leurs immigrés. Négocier l'identité (Paris: Colin 1996).
39. Patrick Weil, La France et ses étrangers (Paris: Calmann-Lévy 1991); Riva Kastoryano, La France, l'Allemagne et leurs immigrés. Négocier l'identité (Paris: Colin 1996).
40. Interview with DGM, Madrid, 7 November 1996.
41. Interview with the cabinet of the Ministry of Social Affairs, Rome, 6 June 1997.
42. Interview with Caritas, Rome, 28 May 1997.
43. See Xan Bouzada, 'La Galicia desconocida de las asociaciones', Documentación Social, vol. 94, 1994, 197-211.
44. See Aleksandra Ålund and Carl-Ulrik Schierup, Paradoxes of Multiculturalism (Aldershot: Avebury 1991); Marco Martiniello, Leadership et pouvoir dans les communautés d'origine immigrée (Paris: L'Harmattan 1992); M. Martiniello, 'Dynamiques et pluralismes culturels dans l'ensemble Bruxellois', in Neveu (ed.); and Riva Kastoryano, 'Mobilisation des migrants en Europe: du national au transnational', Revue européenne des migrations internationales, vol. 10, no. 1, 1994, 169-81.
45. See Aleksandra Ålund and Carl-Ulrik Schierup, Paradoxes of Multiculturalism (Aldershot: Avebury 1991); Marco Martiniello, Leadership et pouvoir dans les communautés d'origine immigrée (Paris: L'Harmattan 1992); M. Martiniello, 'Dynamiques et pluralismes culturels dans l'ensemble Bruxellois', in Neveu (ed.); and Riva Kastoryano, 'Mobilisation des migrants en Europe: du national au transnational', Revue européenne des migrations internationales, vol. 10, no. 1, 1994, 169-81.
46. See Aleksandra Ålund and Carl-Ulrik Schierup, Paradoxes of Multiculturalism (Aldershot: Avebury 1991); Marco Martiniello, Leadership et pouvoir dans les communautés d'origine immigrée (Paris: L'Harmattan 1992); M. Martiniello, 'Dynamiques et pluralismes culturels dans l'ensemble Bruxellois', in Neveu (ed.); and Riva Kastoryano, 'Mobilisation des migrants en Europe: du national au transnational', Revue européenne des migrations internationales, vol. 10, no. 1, 1994, 169-81.
47. See Aleksandra Ålund and Carl-Ulrik Schierup, Paradoxes of Multiculturalism (Aldershot: Avebury 1991); Marco Martiniello, Leadership et pouvoir dans les communautés d'origine immigrée (Paris: L'Harmattan 1992); M. Martiniello, 'Dynamiques et pluralismes culturels dans l'ensemble Bruxellois', in Neveu (ed.); and Riva Kastoryano, 'Mobilisation des migrants en Europe: du national au transnational', Revue européenne des migrations internationales, vol. 10, no. 1, 1994, 169-81.
48. See Alejandro Costes, 'L'Église catholique dans le débat sur l'immigration', Revue européenne des migrations internationales, vol. 4, no. 1-2, 1988, 29-46.
49. A very active and co-ordinated discussion group is composed of Caritas, the Episcopal Conference, the Scalabrinian fathers, ACLI, the Comunità di S. Egidio, FCEI, Ufficio Centrale Studenti Esteri in Italia (Central Office for Foreign Students in Italy), the Jewish community, the Jesuit Refugee Service, and the pro-migrant organizations OSA, AXEPS and Migrantes.
50. Bolaffi.
51. See, for instance, Pierre Muller, 'La mutation des politiques publiques européennes', Pouvoirs, vol. 69, 1994, 63-75; Sidney Tarrow, 'The europeanisation of conflict: reflection s from a social movements perspective', West European Politics, vol. 18, no. 2, 1995; Gary Marks and Doug McAdam, 'Social movements and the changing structure of political opportunity in the European Union', West European Politics, vol. 19, no. 2, 1996, 249-78; Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, 'Changing parameters of citizenship and claims-making: organized Islam in European public spheres', Theory and Society, vol. 26, no. 4, 1997, 509-27; Douglas Imig and Sidney Tarrow (eds), Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2000).
52. See, for instance, Pierre Muller, 'La mutation des politiques publiques européennes', Pouvoirs, vol. 69, 1994, 63-75; Sidney Tarrow, 'The europeanisation of conflict: reflection s from a social movements perspective', West European Politics, vol. 18, no. 2, 1995; Gary Marks and Doug McAdam, 'Social movements and the changing structure of political opportunity in the European Union', West European Politics, vol. 19, no. 2, 1996, 249-78; Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, 'Changing parameters of citizenship and claims-making: organized Islam in European public spheres', Theory and Society, vol. 26, no. 4, 1997, 509-27; Douglas Imig and Sidney Tarrow (eds), Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2000).
53. See, for instance, Pierre Muller, 'La mutation des politiques publiques européennes', Pouvoirs, vol. 69, 1994, 63-75; Sidney Tarrow, 'The europeanisation of conflict: reflection s from a social movements perspective', West European Politics, vol. 18, no. 2, 1995; Gary Marks and Doug McAdam, 'Social movements and the changing structure of political opportunity in the European Union', West European Politics, vol. 19, no. 2, 1996, 249-78; Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, 'Changing parameters of citizenship and claims-making: organized Islam in European public spheres', Theory and Society, vol. 26, no. 4, 1997, 509-27; Douglas Imig and Sidney Tarrow (eds), Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2000).
54. See, for instance, Pierre Muller, 'La mutation des politiques publiques européennes', Pouvoirs, vol. 69, 1994, 63-75; Sidney Tarrow, 'The europeanisation of conflict: reflection s from a social movements perspective', West European Politics, vol. 18, no. 2, 1995; Gary Marks and Doug McAdam, 'Social movements and the changing structure of political opportunity in the European Union', West European Politics, vol. 19, no. 2, 1996, 249-78; Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, 'Changing parameters of citizenship and claims-making: organized Islam in European public spheres', Theory and Society, vol. 26, no. 4, 1997, 509-27; Douglas Imig and Sidney Tarrow (eds), Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2000).
55. See, for instance, Pierre Muller, 'La mutation des politiques publiques européennes', Pouvoirs, vol. 69, 1994, 63-75; Sidney Tarrow, 'The europeanisation of conflict: reflection s from a social movements perspective', West European Politics, vol. 18, no. 2, 1995; Gary Marks and Doug McAdam, 'Social movements and the changing structure of political opportunity in the European Union', West European Politics, vol. 19, no. 2, 1996, 249-78; Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, 'Changing parameters of citizenship and claims-making: organized Islam in European public spheres', Theory and Society, vol. 26, no. 4, 1997, 509-27; Douglas Imig and Sidney Tarrow (eds), Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2000).
56. F. Basabe Llorens, The Roman Catholic Church and the European Union: An Emergent Lobby? (Brussels: European Interuniversity Press 1996).
57. Gaia Danese, 'Transnational collective action in Europe: the case of migrants in Italy and Spain', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, vol. 24, no. 4, 1998, 715-33.
58. In order to understand the interaction of trade unions and political parties with immigrants' associations, they are here seen in their, admittedly partial, role as voluntary-sector-like actors, concerned with civil society issues and facilitating channels for participation, rather than as political or governmental organizations.
59. Note that Spanish and Italian trade unions are not comparable in terms of political influence: while in Spain trade union membership is one of the lowest in Europe (14-15 per cent of the population), in Italy it reaches 40 per cent (Obdulia Taboadela and F. Bouza, 'La evolución de la afiliación sindical en España y la cultura histórica de los sindicatos', Documentación Social, vol. 94, 1994, 119-28).
60. See Castles.
61. Interview, Comisiones Obreras, Barcelona, 5 February 1997.
62. Each union has its own particular approach; for the different strategies of the three biggest organizations in Italy, see Giovanni Mottura and Pietro Pinto, Immigrazione e cambiamento sociale (Rome: Ediesse 1996); G. Mottura, paper presented at the conference 'La Cgil e l'immigrazione: strutture organizzative e servizi', included in CGIL's collection of documents, 'La CGIL e l'immigrazione', no. 10, 1996.
63. Each union has its own particular approach; for the different strategies of the three biggest organizations in Italy, see Giovanni Mottura and Pietro Pinto, Immigrazione e cambiamento sociale (Rome: Ediesse 1996); G. Mottura, paper presented at the conference 'La Cgil e l'immigrazione: strutture organizzative e servizi', included in CGIL's collection of documents, 'La CGIL e l'immigrazione', no. 10, 1996.
64. P. Di Nicola and Enrico Mancuso, 'Una prima analisi dell'attività delle Camere del Lavoro nei confronti degli immigrati dal Congresso di Rimini al 1994', in CGIL's 'La CGIL e l'immigrazione' (see note 47).
65. Mottura and Pinto.
66. The CCOO in Spain, for instance, was a vital conduit of information for migrants' associations organizing projects for the European Year against Racism in 1997.
67. Martiniello, Leadership et pouvoir.
68. Rifondazione Comunista, 'Immigrazione: linee general! di analisi e di orientamento politico', working paper, 1997.
69. Francesco Carchedi, 'Immigrati, dal bisogno ai servizi sociali', working paper, 1995; John Casey, 'La Admisión e integración de los inmigrantes extranjeros', in Joan Subirats, Las Politicas publicas en España (Barcelona: Ariel 1997).
70. Francesco Carchedi, 'Immigrati, dal bisogno ai servizi sociali', working paper, 1995; John Casey, 'La Admisión e integración de los inmigrantes extranjeros', in Joan Subirats, Las Politicas publicas en España (Barcelona: Ariel 1997).
71. MTAS, Anuario de Migraciones 1996 (Madrid 1996).
72. See Danese.
73. Tomás Alberich, 'Aspectos cuantitativos del asociacionismo en España', Documentación Social, vol. 94, 1994, 53-74.
74. Interview with ARCI Solidarietà, Rome, 19 May 1997. This view was also expressed by some leaders of a Spanish migrants' support group during an informal conversation in Madrid in October 1998.
75. Founded at a national forum, 'Immigranti e native cittadine del mondo', Turin, 22-4 March 1996.