Russian policy toward the Middle East: The Yeltsin legacy and the Putin challenge

Middle East Journal

Volumn 55, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 57-88

  Freedman, Robert O ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035649449     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. For studies of politics in the Duma, see Lilia Shevtsova, Yeltsin's Russia: Myth and Reality (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1999) and Stephen White, Russia's New Politics (Cambridge University Press, 2000).
2. For studies of politics in the Duma, see Lilia Shevtsova, Yeltsin's Russia: Myth and Reality (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1999) and Stephen White, Russia's New Politics (Cambridge University Press, 2000).
3. Cited in Gligori@AOL.COM 28 March 1998 (Gligori@AOL.COM is an on-line service specializing in Central Asian and Transcaucasian affairs).
4. See Robert O. Freedman, "Russian-Iranian Relations Under Yeltsin," The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, vol. 25 no. 3, p. 268.
5. For an analysis of the influence of the Russian military on policy, see Vicken Cheterian, "Russia's Disarmed Response," Le Monde Diplomatique, September 2000, p.3.
6. Cited in Steven Liesman, "Moscow Finally Seems Serious About Reorganizing the Military," Wall Street Journal, 11 March 1998.
7. Cited in Stephen DeSpiegeleire, (WEU Institute for Security Studies), "Gulliver's Threads: Russia's Regions and the Rest of the World" (unpublished paper) presented at the Slavic Research Center International Symposium, Sapporo, Japan, 22-25 July 1998.
8. Kommersant Daily, 23 August 1995 (translated in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press [hereafter CDSP], vol. 47, no. 34 (1995), p.25).
9. Kommersant Daily, 23 August 1995 (translated in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press [hereafter CDSP], vol. 47, no. 34 (1995), p.25).
10. Agence France Presse, "Global arms spending continues to decline," Washington Times, 21 June 1999.
11. Stefan Wagstyl, "Russian Crisis: EBRD Sees Effect More Serious Than Expected as it Highlights Output Decline," Financial Times, 16 April 1999. See also Arkady Ostrovsky and John Thornhill, "Russia 'Bust' Says Rating Agency," Financial Times, 24 September 1999.
12. Stefan Wagstyl, "Russian Crisis: EBRD Sees Effect More Serious Than Expected as it Highlights Output Decline," Financial Times, 16 April 1999. See also Arkady Ostrovsky and John Thornhill, "Russia 'Bust' Says Rating Agency," Financial Times, 24 September 1999.
13. For a recent example of such problems, see Alan Cullison, "Russia Closes Bank Vexing Western Investors Who Were Set to Gain from Restructuring Deal," Wall Street Journal, 30 June 1999. See also Andrew Jack, "Russian Sales of Fake Goods Cost $1 Billion," Financial Times, 22 February 2000.
14. For a recent example of such problems, see Alan Cullison, "Russia Closes Bank Vexing Western Investors Who Were Set to Gain from Restructuring Deal," Wall Street Journal, 30 June 1999. See also Andrew Jack, "Russian Sales of Fake Goods Cost $1 Billion," Financial Times, 22 February 2000.
15. For an analysis of Russian arms sales, see Richard F. Grimmett, Conventional Transfers to Developing Nations 1992-1999, (Washington: Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress, 18 August 2000), p. 6. Note: these figures include Russian arms sales to China and India, which are now Russia's main customers.
16. Andrei Musatov, "Putin to use defense industry to bolster country's economy," Russia Journal, 21-27 December 1999.
17. Rossiskaya Gazetza, 13 May 1998 (translated in Johnson's Russia List #3277, 14 May 1998, p. 5) (David Johnson@Erols.com is an on-line service specializing in Russian affairs).
18. Izvestia, 14 February 1998 (translated in CDSP vol. 50, no. 7, 1998, p. 17).
19. Izvestia, 14 February 1998 (translated in CDSP vol. 50, no. 7, 1998, p. 17).
20. Reuters Report, cited in Johnson's Russia List No. 4391 (9 July 2000). See also Michael Wines, "Putin describes an ill Russia and prescribes strong democracy," New York Times, 9 July 2000.
21. Reuters Report, cited in Johnson's Russia List No. 4391 (9 July 2000). See also Michael Wines, "Putin describes an ill Russia and prescribes strong democracy," New York Times, 9 July 2000.
22. For an overview of Russian-Iranian relations, see Freedman, "Russian-Iranian Relations Under Yeltsin," loc. cit.
23. Freedman, "Russian-Iranian Relations Under Yeltsin."
24. See Michael Gordon, "Russians order expulsion of Iranian Diplomat as Missile Spy," New York Times, 18 November 1997 and Marina Kalashnikova, "Iran is our Friend, but US is Valued More," Kommersant Daily, 27 January 1998 (translated in CDSP vol. 50 no. 4, p.22). See also Christopher Cox (ed.), Russia's Road to Corruption (Washington: US House of Representatives, September 2000), pp. 117-121.
25. See Michael Gordon, "Russians order expulsion of Iranian Diplomat as Missile Spy," New York Times, 18 November 1997 and Marina Kalashnikova, "Iran is our Friend, but US is Valued More," Kommersant Daily, 27 January 1998 (translated in CDSP vol. 50 no. 4, p.22). See also Christopher Cox (ed.), Russia's Road to Corruption (Washington: US House of Representatives, September 2000), pp. 117-121.
26. See Michael Gordon, "Russians order expulsion of Iranian Diplomat as Missile Spy," New York Times, 18 November 1997 and Marina Kalashnikova, "Iran is our Friend, but US is Valued More," Kommersant Daily, 27 January 1998 (translated in CDSP vol. 50 no. 4, p.22). See also Christopher Cox (ed.), Russia's Road to Corruption (Washington: US House of Representatives, September 2000), pp. 117-121.
27. See Michael Gordon, "Russians order expulsion of Iranian Diplomat as Missile Spy," New York Times, 18 November 1997 and Marina Kalashnikova, "Iran is our Friend, but US is Valued More," Kommersant Daily, 27 January 1998 (translated in CDSP vol. 50 no. 4, p.22). See also Christopher Cox (ed.), Russia's Road to Corruption (Washington: US House of Representatives, September 2000), pp. 117-121.
28. For a study of US-Iranian relations during this period, see Robert O. Freedman, "American Policy Toward the Middle East in Clinton's Second Term," Mediterranean Security in Coming Millennium (ed. Stephen J. Blank) (Carlisle, Pennsylvania: The Strategic Studies Institute of the US Army War College, 1999), pp.371-416.
29. Viktor Vishniakov, "Russian-Iranian relations and regional stability," International Affairs (Moscow), vol. 45, no. 1, 1999, p. 152.
30. See Yuri Merzliakov, "Legal status of the Caspian Sea," International Affairs (Moscow), vol. 45, no. 1, 1999, p. 37.
31. See M.A. Guseinova, "Politika Ssha B Zakavkoz'e i Interessi Rossii (The Policy of the US in Transcaucasia and Russian interests) (Moscow Institute of the US and Canada, 1999), pp. 14-18 and "Military Presence in Caspian Sea Endangers Regional Peace, " Ettela'at, 15 February 1999.
32. See M.A. Guseinova, "Politika Ssha B Zakavkoz'e i Interessi Rossii (The Policy of the US in Transcaucasia and Russian interests) (Moscow Institute of the US and Canada, 1999), pp. 14-18 and "Military Presence in Caspian Sea Endangers Regional Peace, " Ettela'at, 15 February 1999.
33. Stephen Kinzer, "Caspian Lands Back a Pipeline Pushed by the West," New York Times, 19 November 1999.
34. For a Russian view of these events, see Semyon Novoprudsky, "Patriotic Feat: Russia buys Turkmen gas out from under Turkey and Ukraine," Izvestia, December 21, 1999 [CDSP, vol. 51 no. 51 (January 19, 2000)], p. 12 and Arkady Dubnov, "The big Transcaspian Pipeline Project Flops," Moscow News, 26 January-1 February 2000. It was also rumored, however, that Gasprom was running short of gas and needed Turkmen gas to meet its many commitments.
35. For a Russian view of these events, see Semyon Novoprudsky, "Patriotic Feat: Russia buys Turkmen gas out from under Turkey and Ukraine," Izvestia, December 21, 1999 [CDSP, vol. 51 no. 51 (January 19, 2000)], p. 12 and Arkady Dubnov, "The big Transcaspian Pipeline Project Flops," Moscow News, 26 January-1 February 2000. It was also rumored, however, that Gasprom was running short of gas and needed Turkmen gas to meet its many commitments.
36. For a Russian view of these events, see Semyon Novoprudsky, "Patriotic Feat: Russia buys Turkmen gas out from under Turkey and Ukraine," Izvestia, December 21, 1999 [CDSP, vol. 51 no. 51 (January 19, 2000)], p. 12 and Arkady Dubnov, "The big Transcaspian Pipeline Project Flops," Moscow News, 26 January-1 February 2000. It was also rumored, however, that Gasprom was running short of gas and needed Turkmen gas to meet its many commitments.
37. Cited in "Iran to Slash Caspian Oil Swap Fees," Ettela'at (Tehran), 23 November 1999.
38. Cited in "Iran Best Route for Transfer of Caspian Sea Energy," Ettela'at (Tehran), 24 June 1999.
39. Cited in RFE/RL Iran Report, vol. 3 no. 6, 7 February 2000.
40. Cited in Elaine Sciolino, "Skipping the Charm, President of Iran Chastises his Country's Reformers and the US," New York Times, 8 September 2000.
41. Cited in David James, "Iranian President Wants Strong Ties with Russia," Washington Times, 8 September 2000. For his part Putin had singled out Iran for special mention in his new foreign policy doctrine.
42. Colum Lynch, "Albright, Iranian Minister Meet in Silence," Washington Post, 16 September 2000.
43. Komsomalskaya Pravda, 26 October 1993, cited in Commonwealth of Independent States and the Middle East (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Marjory Mayrock Center for Russian and East European Studies) (hereafter CIS/ME 18, no. 10 [1993], p.31).
44. Komsomalskaya Pravda, 26 October 1993, cited in Commonwealth of Independent States and the Middle East (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Marjory Mayrock Center for Russian and East European Studies) (hereafter CIS/ME 18, no. 10 [1993], p.31).
45. Kommersant, 1 December 1993 (FBIS:FSU, 2 December 1993, p. 11).
46. Kommersant, 1 December 1993 (FBIS:FSU, 2 December 1993, p. 11).
47. Izvestia, 9 August 1994 (CDSP vol. 46, no. 32 [1994] p. 18).
48. Izvestia, 9 August 1994 (CDSP vol. 46, no. 32 [1994] p. 18).
49. Interfax, 2 February 1995, cited in CIS/ME 20, nos. 2-3 [1995], p. 37.
50. Interfax, 2 February 1995, cited in CIS/ME 20, nos. 2-3 [1995], p. 37.
51. Krasnaya Zvezda, 3 August 1995 (FBIS:FSU, 4 August 1995, p.9).
52. Krasnaya Zvezda, 3 August 1995 (FBIS:FSU, 4 August 1995, p.9).
53. Interfax, 24 August 1995 (FBIS:FSU, 25 August 1995, p. 13).
54. Interfax, 24 August 1995 (FBIS:FSU, 25 August 1995, p. 13).
55. CIS/ME 20, nos. 4-5 [1995] p. 46.
56. See the report by Robert Corzine, "Saddam Casts Shadow over Oil Market," Financial Times, 26 January 1996.
57. See the report by David Hearst, "Russia Signs 'Giant' Oil Deal with Iraq," Manchester Guardian Weekly, 18 February 1996.
58. Cited in Charles Truehart and David Hoffman, "France and Russia Differ from US in Agendas on Iraq," Washington Post, 13 November 1997.
59. Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 28 November 1997 (translated in CDSP, vol. 49 no.48 [1997], p.11).
60. Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 28 November 1997 (translated in CDSP, vol. 49 no.48 [1997], p.11).
61. David Buchan, "Europeans Rally to Allies' Cause," Financial Times, 19 December 1998.
62. Barbara Crosette, "US is Urged to Ease Call to Inspect Atomic Arms," New York Times, 22 December 1998.
63. Yelena Suponina, "UN Sanctions Cramp Lukoil," Moscow News, 7-13 July 1999.
64. Yelena Suponina, "Iraq and Russia Reach Compromise,." Moscow News, 6-12 October 1999.
65. Yelena Suponina, "RF Oil Minister: Why Give Up on Profits from Iraq?," Moscow News, 13-19 October 1999.
66. Alexander Davydov, "Blue Stream: Can it Beat its Rival?," Moscow News, 22-28 September 1999.
67. Judith Miller, "The Trade-Off: Russia Offers to Bargain, Using Iraq as Bait," New York Times, 19 November 1999.
68. For the text of UNSC Resolution #1284, see the UN website. The resolution was clearly a compromise. Initially Russia wanted only a period of 60 days for Iraq to show compliance, while the US had demanded 180 days. See Colum Lynch, "US Eases Stance on Iraq Arms Monitors," Washington Post, 11 December 1999.
69. "Russia, Iraq Sign Deal on Power Plant," Washington Times, 22 December 1999. The equipment for the plant, however, would have to be approved by the US which continued to have a concern about the importing to Iraq of "dual-use" equipment.
70. Barbara Crosette, "UN Names Ex-head of Atomic Energy Agency to Lead Iraq Monitoring," New York Times, 27 January 2000. See also Barbara Crosette, "Iraqis Seem Less Hostile to New Weapons Inspector," New York Times, 28 January 2000.
71. Barbara Crosette, "UN Names Ex-head of Atomic Energy Agency to Lead Iraq Monitoring," New York Times, 27 January 2000. See also Barbara Crosette, "Iraqis Seem Less Hostile to New Weapons Inspector," New York Times, 28 January 2000.
72. "Top Arms Inspector to Rely on UN in Iraq," New York Times, 5 February 2000.
73. Colum Lynch, "UN Arms Inspectors Back Down," Washington Post, 31 August 2000.
74. Michael Gordon, "Russia, Iraq Pushing Ties," New York Times, 27 July 2000.
75. st century. Russia will resolutely oppose any attempts to lower (the United Nation's) role and that of its Security Council." (Reuters, 10 July 2000, cited in Johnson's Russia List #4395, 11 July 2000). Russia however continued to push at the edges of the sanctions regime by increasing the number of its flights to Baghdad for "humanitarian" purposes (AP report "Russian Plane Lands in Iraq", Washington Post, 24 September 2000).
76. st century. Russia will resolutely oppose any attempts to lower (the United Nation's) role and that of its Security Council." (Reuters, 10 July 2000, cited in Johnson's Russia List #4395, 11 July 2000). Russia however continued to push at the edges of the sanctions regime by increasing the number of its flights to Baghdad for "humanitarian" purposes (AP report "Russian Plane Lands in Iraq", Washington Post, 24 September 2000).
77. Pravda, 19 February 1992 (FBIS:FSU, 20 February 1992, p. 43).
78. Pravda, 19 February 1992 (FBIS:FSU, 20 February 1992, p. 43).
79. Vladimir Kulistikov, "Turks from the Adriatic to the Great Chinese Wall are a Threat to Russia," New Times (Moscow), no. 20 (1992) p.3.
80. Cited in Stephen J. Blank, "Turkey's Strategic Engagement in the Former USSR and US Interests," in Turkey's Strategic Position at the Crossroad of World Affairs, (Ed. Steven Blank et al) (Carlisle, Penna.: US Army War College, 1993), p. 56.
81. See Maksim Yusin, "Tehran Declares 'Great Battle' for Influence in Central Asia," Izvestia, 7 February 1992 (CDSP vol. 44, no.6 [1992] p. 18).
82. See Maksim Yusin, "Tehran Declares 'Great Battle' for Influence in Central Asia," Izvestia, 7 February 1992 (CDSP vol. 44, no.6 [1992] p. 18).
83. Interview by the author, Uzbek Foreign Ministry, Tashkent, Uzbekistan, 30 September 1993. See also Islam Karimov, Building the Future: Uzbekistan Its Own Model for Transition to a Market Economy (Tashkent, 1993).
84. Turkish correspondent Semih Idiz called 1993 a year that forced Turkish diplomats into a "crisis management mode" (Turkish Times, 1 February 1994, p. 1).
85. For a Russian view of the threat that the Turkish pipeline system would pose to Russia, see Vladimir Iuratev and Anatoly Sheshtakov of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, "Asian Gas Will Flow East: New Alliance Infringes on Russian Interests," Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 13 May 1993 (CDSP vol. 45, no. 14 [1993] pp. 16-18.) For a Western view arguing that Moscow is practicing economic warfare over the pipeline issue, see Stephen Blank, Energy and Security in Transcaucasia, US Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 7 September 1994.
86. For a Russian view of the threat that the Turkish pipeline system would pose to Russia, see Vladimir Iuratev and Anatoly Sheshtakov of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, "Asian Gas Will Flow East: New Alliance Infringes on Russian Interests," Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 13 May 1993 (CDSP vol. 45, no. 14 [1993] pp. 16-18.) For a Western view arguing that Moscow is practicing economic warfare over the pipeline issue, see Stephen Blank, Energy and Security in Transcaucasia, US Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 7 September 1994.
87. For a Russian view of the threat that the Turkish pipeline system would pose to Russia, see Vladimir Iuratev and Anatoly Sheshtakov of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, "Asian Gas Will Flow East: New Alliance Infringes on Russian Interests," Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 13 May 1993 (CDSP vol. 45, no. 14 [1993] pp. 16-18.) For a Western view arguing that Moscow is practicing economic warfare over the pipeline issue, see Stephen Blank, Energy and Security in Transcaucasia, US Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 7 September 1994.
88. Cited in report by Baha Gugnor, "Russian fear of Pan-Turkism grows," Deutsche Press Agentur, Washington Times, 5 November 1994.
89. Istanbul Declaration, Turkish Times, 3 November 1994.
90. Cited in Turkish Times, 1 September 1995.
91. Turkish Times, 1 September 1995
92. During her visit to Moscow in early September 1993, Turkey's new prime minister Tansu Ciller, was quoted as saying, "President Yeltsin has agreed to cooperation between Turkey and Russia to lift the anti-Iraqi embargo," Washington Times, 10 September 1993.
93. Izvestia, 21 July 1994.
94. See Elizabeth Fuller, "Turkish-Russian Relations 1992-1994," Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Report vol. 3 no. 18 (16 May 1994), p.9.
95. Interviews by the author in Turkey in June 1996 indicated that while the Turkish government was apparently not directly aiding the Chechen rebels, private groups in Turkey, especially Islamic groups, were assisting the Chechens.
96. Moscow scored a partial success on the CFE issue in late May 1996, when it was given an additional three years to reduce its heavy equipment (AP report, Boston Globe, 2 June 1996).
97. The Laleli district in Istabul is a center of Russian-Turkish "suitcase trade," and it was primarily merchants from this district who sent the money to aid Yeltsin's campaign. See the report by Dogu Ergil, "Russian Elections and the Future of Turco-Russian Relations," Turkish Times, 23 June 1996. So many Russian tourists now come to the Turkish resort of Antalya that by 1996 there was a special Russian newspaper for them there, Antalya Dlya Vas (Antalya for you).
98. Cited in Gligori@aol.com, November 12, 1997.
99. Cited in Sanubar Shermatova, "Gas brings Turkey and Russia Closer," Moscow News nos. 51-52, 1997 (25 December 1997-8 January 1998), p.6.
100. See Lionel Barber, "Russia Stands by Missile Sale", Financial Times, 28 January 1998.
101. Toni Marshall, "Greece to Deploy Russian Missiles in Crete to Ease Turkish Concerns," Washington Times, 19 November 1998.
102. See R. Jeffrey Smith, "Earthquakes Aid Relations Between Greeks, Turks: Goodwill Eases Tensions: Cyprus Still Sticking Point," Washington Post, 10 November 1999.
103. "Greece Now Supports Turkey Joining EU," Washington Post, 6 September 1999.
104. Cited in Kerin Hope, Aegean military tensions: Ankara and Athens agree to defense talks, Financial Times, 21 January 2000. See also Stephen Kinzer, "Turkey Considers Scaling Back Military Challenge to Greece," New York Times, 8 June 2000.
105. Cited in Kerin Hope, Aegean military tensions: Ankara and Athens agree to defense talks, Financial Times, 21 January 2000. See also Stephen Kinzer, "Turkey Considers Scaling Back Military Challenge to Greece," New York Times, 8 June 2000.
106. See Peter Preston, "How the earth moved for Athens and Ankara," Manchester Guardian Weekly, 27 January-2 February 2000.
107. "Bechtel, G.E. Seek Oil Company Help to Finance $2.5 Billion Pipeline," amboll@aol.com, 22 February 1999.
108. Paul Betts and Robert Corzine, "ENI and Gasprom to Build $3 Billion Pipeline," Financial Times, 4 February 1999.
109. Hugh Pope, "Russian-Italian Pipeline to Turkey Wins Support," Wall Street Journal, 25 February 1999.
110. For a chronology of these events, see Alexander Davydov, "Blue Stream: Can it Beat its Rival?", Moscow News, 22-28 September 1999.
111. Leyla Boulton, "Ecevit Russian Visit to Focus on Gas Line," Financial Times, 4 November 1999.
112. Amberin Zaman, "Deal Looms for Building Oil Pipeline Via Turkey," Washington Post, 6 November 1999. Nonetheless, serious security problems with the pipeline remained.
113. Andrew Jack and Leyla Boulton, "Russia Paves Way for Pipeline," Financial Times, 4-5 December 1999.
114. Hugh Pope, "Russia Takes Lead in Race to Supply Gas to Turkey," Wall Street Journal, 17 February 2000. Meanwhile, Iran was also a competitor in the Turkish national gas market and an agreement to extend for 3 years the existing 22-month contract was negotiated in February 2000 (amboll@aol.com), August 24, 2000.
115. "Turkey Wants New Rules on Passage in Straits," Washington Times, 16 February 2000.
116. David Buchan and Stephen Fuller, "Summit Seals New Security Charter," Financial Times, 20-21 November 1999.
117. Buchan and Fuller, "Summit Seals New Security Charter."