The biological basis of crime: An historical and methodological study

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 183-222

  Allen, Garland E ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035646423     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/hsps.2001.31.2.183     Document Type: Article

References (175)

1. Irving Fisher, quoted in Harry H. Laughlin, Eugenical sterilization in the United States (Chicago, 1922), v.
2. Judge Harry Olson, Chief Justice of the Municipal Court of Chicago, "The biological aspects of crime," mimeographed pamphlet (1936), Harry H. Laughlin Papers, Pickler Memorial Library, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO, frontispiece.
3. Daniel Koshland, "Editorial" in Science, 250 (12 Oct 1990), 189.
4. Mayor Koch, "The mugger and his genes" (review of Herrnstein and Wilson's "Crime and human nature," in Policy review, 35 (Winter, 1986), 1-28.
5. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
6. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
7. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
8. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
9. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
10. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
11. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
12. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
13. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
14. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
15. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
16. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
17. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
18. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
19. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
20. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
21. Several general sources survey recent claims about the genetics of complex behavioral traits: David E. Comings, The gene bomb (Duarte, CA, 1996); Eric S. Lander and Nicholas J. Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits," Science, 265 (1994), 2037-2048. On genetic influences on specific behaviors: Irving S. Gottesman and Steven O. Moldin, "Genotypes, genes, genesis and pathogenesis in schizophrenia," in Mark F. Lenzenweger and Robert J. Dworkin, eds., Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (Washington, D.C., 1998), 3-25. C. Robert Cloninger, R. Adolfsson and N.M. Svrakic, "Mapping genes for human personality," Nature genetics, 12 (1996), 3-4; Jerome Kagan, Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition and self (Cambridge, 1989); Theodore Reich, H. Edenberg and A. Goate et al., "An genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence," American journal of medical genetics, 81 (1998), 207-215; Simon LeVay and Dean Hamer, "Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality," Scientific American, 270 (1994), 44-49; Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, environment and personality," Science, 264 (1994), 1700-1701; Robert Plomin, "The role of inheritance in behavior," Science, 248 (1990), 183-188; J. Philippe Rushton, "Japanese inbreeding depression scores: Predictors of cognitive differences between blacks and whites," Intelligence, 13 (1989), 43-51; Richard Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, Crime and human nature (New York, 1985); C. Robert Cloninger, S. Sigvardsson, M. Bohman and A.L. Von Knorring, "Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction," Archives of general psychiatry, 39 (1982), 1242-1247; M. Brunner, X.O. Brakefield, H.H. Ropers and B.A. van Oost, "Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A," Science, 262 (1993), 578-580. For critiques of behavior genetic claims, John. Horgan, "Eugenics revisited," Scientific American, 268 (1993), 122-131; Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the gene myth (Boston, 1993); Garland E. Allen, "The double-edged sword of genetic determinism: Social and political agendas in genetic studies of homosexuality, 1940-1994," in Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and homosexualities (New York 1997), 242-270; Ari Berkowitz, "Networks of neurons, networks of genes," Neuron, 17 (1996), 199-202.
22. Herrnstein and Wilson, ibid.; Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The bell curve (New York, 1994); Simon LeVay, The sexual brain (New York, 1994); Dean Hamer, The science of desire (New York, 1994).
23. Herrnstein and Wilson, ibid.; Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The bell curve (New York, 1994); Simon LeVay, The sexual brain (New York, 1994); Dean Hamer, The science of desire (New York, 1994).
24. Herrnstein and Wilson, ibid.; Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The bell curve (New York, 1994); Simon LeVay, The sexual brain (New York, 1994); Dean Hamer, The science of desire (New York, 1994).
25. Herrnstein and Wilson, ibid.; Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The bell curve (New York, 1994); Simon LeVay, The sexual brain (New York, 1994); Dean Hamer, The science of desire (New York, 1994).
26. Anon., Science 269 (5 Jul 1995), 35.
27. Nicole Rafter, Creating born criminals (Champaign-Urbana, 1997).
28. Robert A. Nye, "Heredity or milieu: The foundations of modern European criminological theory," Isis, 67 (1976), 335-355, and Stephen, J. Gould, The mismeasure of man, rev. edn. (New York, 1996).
29. Robert A. Nye, "Heredity or milieu: The foundations of modern European criminological theory," Isis, 67 (1976), 335-355, and Stephen, J. Gould, The mismeasure of man, rev. edn. (New York, 1996).
30. Francis Galton, Inquiry into human faculty and its development (London, 1883), 24-25.
31. Garland E. Allen, "The Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor: An essay in institutional history," Osiris, 5 (1986), 225-264.
32. Philip R. Reilly, The surgical solution. A history of involuntary sterilization in the United States (Baltimore, 1991), 17.
33. Ibid.
34. Charles B. Davenport, "Heredity, culpability, praiseworthiness, punishment, and reward," Popular science monthly, 82 (1913), 33-39; Davenport, "Crime, heredity and environment," Journal of heredity, 19:7 (Jul 1928), 307-313.
35. Charles B. Davenport, "Heredity, culpability, praiseworthiness, punishment, and reward," Popular science monthly, 82 (1913), 33-39; Davenport, "Crime, heredity and environment," Journal of heredity, 19:7 (Jul 1928), 307-313.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., 307.
38. Paul Popenoe and Roswell H. Johnson, Applied eugenics (New York, 1923), 181.
39. Charles B. Davenport, "The feebly-inhibited I Violent temper and its inheritance," Journal of nervous and mental disease, 42:9 (1915), 593-628; Davenport, "Heredity" (ref. 14).
40. Charles B. Davenport, "The feebly-inhibited I Violent temper and its inheritance," Journal of nervous and mental disease, 42:9 (1915), 593-628; Davenport, "Heredity" (ref. 14).
41. Davenport, "Crime" (ref. 14), 310.
42. Thomas Hunt Morgan, The scientific basis of evolution (New York, 1932), 210.
43. T.H. Morgan, Evolution and genetics (Princeton, 1925), 201-202.
44. Charles B. Davenport, "The heredity factor in pellagra," Archives of internal medicine, 18 (1916), 4-75.
45. Allen (ref. 11), 251.
46. John Higham, Strangers in the land (New York, 1966); Oscar Handler, Race and nationality in American life (Boston, 1957).
47. John Higham, Strangers in the land (New York, 1966); Oscar Handler, Race and nationality in American life (Boston, 1957).
48. Frances Hassencahl, Harry H. Laughlin, expert eugenics agent for the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, 1921-1931 (Ph.D. dissertation, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, 1970).
49. Philip R. Reilly, The surgical solution. A history of involuntary sterilization in the United States (Baltimore, 1991), 75.
50. Harry H. Laughlin and Harry Olson, "The biological aspects of crime" (mimeographed pamphlet produced by the Municipal Court of Chicago, 1936), in H.H. Laughlin Papers, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO, Pickler Memorial Library. Although the authorship is not stated explicitly, the organizational style and prose appear very similar to Laughlin's, and my guess is that he wrote with some input from Olson.
51. Harry H. Laughlin, Eugenical sterilization in the United States (Chicago, 1922), 117.
52. Reilly (ref. 26), 75.
53. French Strother, "The causes of crime: Defective brain," World's work, 48 (1924), 275-281, on 275.
54. Ibid., frontispiece.
55. Ibid., 5.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid., 6.
58. Ibid, 7.
59. Harry H. Laughlin, Analysis of America's modern melting pot. Hearings before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, House of Representatives, Sixty-Seventh Congress (November 21, 1922) (Washington, D.C., 1923); Laughlin and Oison (ref. 27).
60. Ibid., 9.
61. Barbara Solomon, Ancestors and immigrants (Chicago, 1972).
62. Allen Chase, The legacy of Malthus (New York, 1977), 255.
63. Hassencahl (ref. 25); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and American society (Baltimore, 1972); Garland E. Allen, "The role of experts in scientific controversy," in H.T. Engelhardt and A.L. Caplan, eds., Scientific controversies: Case studies in the resolution and closure of disputes in science (Cambridge, 1987).
64. Hassencahl (ref. 25); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and American society (Baltimore, 1972); Garland E. Allen, "The role of experts in scientific controversy," in H.T. Engelhardt and A.L. Caplan, eds., Scientific controversies: Case studies in the resolution and closure of disputes in science (Cambridge, 1987).
65. Hassencahl (ref. 25); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and American society (Baltimore, 1972); Garland E. Allen, "The role of experts in scientific controversy," in H.T. Engelhardt and A.L. Caplan, eds., Scientific controversies: Case studies in the resolution and closure of disputes in science (Cambridge, 1987).
66. Laughlin (ref. 36), 732 ff.
67. Ibid., 757.
68. Ibid., 734.
69. Ludmerer (ref. 40), 111.
70. Herbert S. Jennings, "Proportions of defectives from the northwest and from the southeast of Europe," Science, 59 (14 Mar 1924), 256-257; Herbert S. Jennings, Prometheus, or biology and the advancement of man (London, 1925).
71. Herbert S. Jennings, "Proportions of defectives from the northwest and from the southeast of Europe," Science, 59 (14 Mar 1924), 256-257; Herbert S. Jennings, Prometheus, or biology and the advancement of man (London, 1925).
72. Joseph M. Gillman, "Statistics and the immigration problem," America journal of sociology, 30 (Jul 1924), 29-48.
73. Ibid., 40.
74. Laughlin (ref. 36), 828-830.
75. Gillman (ref. 46), 38.
76. Laughlin (ref. 36), table 3b, 796.
77. Ibid., 35.
78. Ibid., 41.
79. Ibid., 41-42.
80. Leon J. Kamin, "Is crime in the genes? The answer may depend on who chooses the evidence. Crime and human nature (review)," Scientific American, 254 (1986), 22-27; and, Kamin, "Behind the curve (Review of Hernnstein and Murray, The bell curve)," Scientific American, 272 (Feb 1995), 99-103.
81. Leon J. Kamin, "Is crime in the genes? The answer may depend on who chooses the evidence. Crime and human nature (review)," Scientific American, 254 (1986), 22-27; and, Kamin, "Behind the curve (Review of Hernnstein and Murray, The bell curve)," Scientific American, 272 (Feb 1995), 99-103.
82. Chase (ref. 39), 274-295.
83. Reilly (ref. 12), 880.
84. Allen (ref. 11), 253; Stefan Kühl, The Nazi connection, eugenics, American racism and German National Socialism (New York, 1994), 87-88.
85. Allen (ref. 11), 253; Stefan Kühl, The Nazi connection, eugenics, American racism and German National Socialism (New York, 1994), 87-88.
86. Laughlin (ref. 28), 117.
87. Ibid.
88. Jonas Robitscher, Eugenic sterilization (Springfield, IL, 1973); Reilly (ref. 12), 100-101.
89. Jonas Robitscher, Eugenic sterilization (Springfield, IL, 1973); Reilly (ref. 12), 100-101.
90. Ibid., 97, 165.
91. Paul A. Lombardo, "Three generations of imbeciles is enough: New light on 'Buck vs Bell'," New York University law review, 60 (1985), 30-62.
92. Hassencahl (ref. 25), 227 ff.
93. Ibid., 230.
94. Ludmerer (ref. 40), 106, 111.
95. Earnest Albert Hooton, The American criminal: An anthropological study (Cambridge, 1939).
96. Earnest Albert Hooton, Crime and the man (Cambridge, 1939).
97. Sussman, personal communication, 1998.
98. Hooton (ref. 66), vii.
99. Hooton (ref. 67), 5; Hooton (ref. 66), vii-viii.
100. Hooton (ref. 67), 5; Hooton (ref. 66), vii-viii.
101. Hooton (ref. 67), 16.
102. Hooton (ref. 67), 8.
103. Ibid., 9-10.
104. Hooton (ref. 66), 130 ff.
105. Ibid., 274.
106. Kelts (an older spelling of Celt) includes in some grouping the Irish, Welsh, and Scottish (in the 19th century Robert Knox considered even the French as Celtic in origin). Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The history of an idea in America (Dallas, 1975), 96.
107. Alpine is a category that was meant to include people from Central Europe to Western Asia. Theodosius Dobhansky, Evolution, genetics, and man (New York, 1955), 349.
108. Ibid., 250.
109. Ibid., 269.
110. Ibid., 274.
111. Hooton (ref. 67), 369.
112. Ibid., 190.
113. Ibid., 136.
114. Ibid., xvii.
115. Ibid., 104.
116. Hooton (ref. 66), 309.
117. Ibid., 309.
118. Samuel G. Kling, "Environment vs heredity: Crime and the man (review)," New York herald tribune: Books (5 Mar 1939), 14; Wilton M. Krogman, "Crime and the man" (review), American anthropologist, 41 (1939), 504-509.
119. Samuel G. Kling, "Environment vs heredity: Crime and the man (review)," New York herald tribune: Books (5 Mar 1939), 14; Wilton M. Krogman, "Crime and the man" (review), American anthropologist, 41 (1939), 504-509.
120. For an example of general uncritical use of definitions, Herrnstein and Wilson cite the somatotyping work of a Harvard predecessor W.H. Sheldon, which identified criminal tendencies with mesomorphic body shapes, whatever these actually are, but fail to cite subsequent studies that, among others, found that most mesomorphic body types among a collection of Princeton undergraduates (Kamin, "Crime" (ref. 54); Wilson and Herrnstein (ref. 5), 81-87. More directly related to racial and ethnic considerations, Wilson and Herrnstein devote a whole chapter (18) to race and crime. And although they present a rather eloquent discussion of the difficulties of defining races, the bulk of the chapter is about possible biological explanations of the differences in black and white crime rates in the U.S.
121. For an example of general uncritical use of definitions, Herrnstein and Wilson cite the somatotyping work of a Harvard predecessor W.H. Sheldon, which identified criminal tendencies with mesomorphic body shapes, whatever these actually are, but fail to cite subsequent studies that, among others, found that most mesomorphic body types among a collection of Princeton undergraduates (Kamin, "Crime" (ref. 54); Wilson and Herrnstein (ref. 5), 81-87. More directly related to racial and ethnic considerations, Wilson and Herrnstein devote a whole chapter (18) to race and crime. And although they present a rather eloquent discussion of the difficulties of defining races, the bulk of the chapter is about possible biological explanations of the differences in black and white crime rates in the U.S.
122. Harold Ward, "Crime and the man (review)," New republic, 98 (1939), 141.
123. Jay Beck, "Are criminals so different? Crime and the man (review)," The survey, 75 (1939), 261.
124. J.P. Shalloo, Crime and the man (review)," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 205 (1939), 152-153.
125. Rlustem Vambery, "Crime and criminals: Crime and society by Nathaniel F. Cantor, Crime and man [sic] by Ernest A. Hooton, and The American prison system, by Fred E. Haynes (reviews)," The nation, 149 (1939), 472-473.
126. Hooton (ref. 67), 37.
127. Frank A. Ross, "The American criminal: An anthropological study (review)," American journal of sociology, 45 (1939/40), 477-480, on 479.
128. Ernst Mayr, The growth of biological thought (Cambridge, 1982), 45-47.
129. Max Radin, "Crime and the man (review)," Harvard law review, 52 (1939), 1373-1376, esp. 1375.
130. Ibid.; Ross (ref. 95), 478; Ward (ref. 90), 141.
131. Ibid.; Ross (ref. 95), 478; Ward (ref. 90), 141.
132. Ibid.; Ross (ref. 95), 478; Ward (ref. 90), 141.
133. Ross (ref. 95), 479.
134. Beck (ref. 91), 261.
135. Kling (ref. 88), 14.
136. Ward (ref. 90), 141.
137. Ibid.
138. Ibid.
139. The Gluecks' work is summarized in Sheldon Glueck and Eleanor T. Glueck, Unravelling juvenile delinquency (Cambridge, 1950), 175-179.
140. Kamin (ref. 54).
141. D.S. Borogaonkar, and Saleem A. Shah, "The XYY chromosome male - or syndrome?" Progress in medical genetics, 10 (1974), 135-222.
142. Kamin (ref. 54).
143. Garland E. Allen, "Modern biological determinism: The 'Violence initiative,' the human genome project and the new eugenics," in Michael Fortun and Everett Mendolsohn, eds., The practices of human genetics (Dordrecht, 1999), 1-23.
144. Gregory Carey, "Genetics and violence," in Albert J. Reiss, Lars A. Milsek, and Jeffrey Roth, eds., Understanding and preventing violence (Washington, D.C., 1994).
145. Edward J. Larson, Sex, race and science. Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore, 1996), 146.
146. Reilly (ref. 12), 93, 101.
147. Lombardo (ref. 62), 97.
148. Robert Wiebe, The search for order (New York, 1967).
149. Rudolf Vecoli, "Sterilization: A progressive measure?," Wisconsin magazine of history, 43 (1960), 190-202; Donald Pickens, Eugenics and the progressives (Nashville, 1968); Michael Freeden, "Eugenics and progressive thought: A study in ideological affinity," Historical journal, 22 (1979), 645-671; Greta Jones, Social hygiene in twentieth century Britain (London, 1986); Barry Mehler, A history of the American Eugenics Society, 1921-1940 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1988); Diane Paul, Controlling human heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
150. Rudolf Vecoli, "Sterilization: A progressive measure?," Wisconsin magazine of history, 43 (1960), 190-202; Donald Pickens, Eugenics and the progressives (Nashville, 1968); Michael Freeden, "Eugenics and progressive thought: A study in ideological affinity," Historical journal, 22 (1979), 645-671; Greta Jones, Social hygiene in twentieth century Britain (London, 1986); Barry Mehler, A history of the American Eugenics Society, 1921-1940 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1988); Diane Paul, Controlling human heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
151. Rudolf Vecoli, "Sterilization: A progressive measure?," Wisconsin magazine of history, 43 (1960), 190-202; Donald Pickens, Eugenics and the progressives (Nashville, 1968); Michael Freeden, "Eugenics and progressive thought: A study in ideological affinity," Historical journal, 22 (1979), 645-671; Greta Jones, Social hygiene in twentieth century Britain (London, 1986); Barry Mehler, A history of the American Eugenics Society, 1921-1940 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1988); Diane Paul, Controlling human heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
152. Rudolf Vecoli, "Sterilization: A progressive measure?," Wisconsin magazine of history, 43 (1960), 190-202; Donald Pickens, Eugenics and the progressives (Nashville, 1968); Michael Freeden, "Eugenics and progressive thought: A study in ideological affinity," Historical journal, 22 (1979), 645-671; Greta Jones, Social hygiene in twentieth century Britain (London, 1986); Barry Mehler, A history of the American Eugenics Society, 1921-1940 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1988); Diane Paul, Controlling human heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
153. Rudolf Vecoli, "Sterilization: A progressive measure?," Wisconsin magazine of history, 43 (1960), 190-202; Donald Pickens, Eugenics and the progressives (Nashville, 1968); Michael Freeden, "Eugenics and progressive thought: A study in ideological affinity," Historical journal, 22 (1979), 645-671; Greta Jones, Social hygiene in twentieth century Britain (London, 1986); Barry Mehler, A history of the American Eugenics Society, 1921-1940 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1988); Diane Paul, Controlling human heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
154. Rudolf Vecoli, "Sterilization: A progressive measure?," Wisconsin magazine of history, 43 (1960), 190-202; Donald Pickens, Eugenics and the progressives (Nashville, 1968); Michael Freeden, "Eugenics and progressive thought: A study in ideological affinity," Historical journal, 22 (1979), 645-671; Greta Jones, Social hygiene in twentieth century Britain (London, 1986); Barry Mehler, A history of the American Eugenics Society, 1921-1940 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1988); Diane Paul, Controlling human heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995).
155. Mehler (ibid.).
156. Harry H. Laughlin, "Report of the Committee to Study and Report on the Best Practical Means of Cutting off the Defective Germ Plasm of the American population," Bulletin of the Eugenics Record Office, No. 10 (1914), 100
157. Lily Kay, The molecular vision of life. Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (Oxford, 1993); David Grossman, Professors and public service, 1885-1925: A chapter in the professionalization of the social sciences (Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University. 1973); Barry Karl and Stanley D. Katz, "The American private philanthropic foundation and the public sphere, 1890-1930," Minerva, 19 (1981), 236-270; Garland E. Allen (ref. 11 ), 259.
158. Lily Kay, The molecular vision of life. Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (Oxford, 1993); David Grossman, Professors and public service, 1885-1925: A chapter in the professionalization of the social sciences (Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University. 1973); Barry Karl and Stanley D. Katz, "The American private philanthropic foundation and the public sphere, 1890-1930," Minerva, 19 (1981), 236-270; Garland E. Allen (ref. 11 ), 259.
159. Lily Kay, The molecular vision of life. Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (Oxford, 1993); David Grossman, Professors and public service, 1885-1925: A chapter in the professionalization of the social sciences (Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University. 1973); Barry Karl and Stanley D. Katz, "The American private philanthropic foundation and the public sphere, 1890-1930," Minerva, 19 (1981), 236-270; Garland E. Allen (ref. 11 ), 259.
160. Lily Kay, The molecular vision of life. Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology (Oxford, 1993); David Grossman, Professors and public service, 1885-1925: A chapter in the professionalization of the social sciences (Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University. 1973); Barry Karl and Stanley D. Katz, "The American private philanthropic foundation and the public sphere, 1890-1930," Minerva, 19 (1981), 236-270; Garland E. Allen (ref. 11 ), 259.
161. James Weinstein, The corporate ideal in the liberal state, 1900-1918 (Boston, 1968); Graham Adams, The age of industrial violence (New York, 1966).
162. James Weinstein, The corporate ideal in the liberal state, 1900-1918 (Boston, 1968); Graham Adams, The age of industrial violence (New York, 1966).
163. Charles Leinenweber, "The class and ethnic bases of New York City socialism, 1904-1915," Labor history, 22 (1981), 31-56.
164. Oscar Handlin, The uprooted: The epic story of the great migrations that made the American people, 2nd edn. (Boston, 1973); Solomon (ref. 38).
165. Ludmerer (ref. 40).
166. Daniel J. Kevles, In the name of eugenics (New York, 1986); Jones (ref. 115).
167. Daniel J. Kevles, In the name of eugenics (New York, 1986); Jones (ref. 115).
168. Sheila Weiss, "The race hygiene movement in Germany, 1904-1945," in Mark B. Adams, ed., The wellborn science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil and Russia (Oxford, 1990), 8-68, and Paul Weindling, Health, race and German politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (New York, 1989).
169. Sheila Weiss, "The race hygiene movement in Germany, 1904-1945," in Mark B. Adams, ed., The wellborn science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil and Russia (Oxford, 1990), 8-68, and Paul Weindling, Health, race and German politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (New York, 1989).
170. Weiss (ibid.), 49.
171. Robert Proctor, Racial hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge, 1988), 182.
172. Charles W. Burr, "Crime from a psychiatrist's point of view," in Research studies of crime as related to heredity (Chicago, 1925), 63-73, on 65.
173. Proctor (ref. 126).
174. Anthony Standen, Science is a sacred cow (New York, 1950), 195.
175. Jonas Robitscher, Eugenic sterilization (Springfield, IL, 1973).