Mapping wildland fuels for fire management across multiple scales: Integrating remote sensing, GIS, and biophysical modeling

International Journal of Wildland Fire

Volumn 10, Issue 3-4, 2001, Pages 301-319

  Keane, Robert E ^a   Burgan, Robert ^a   Van Wagtendonk, Jan ^b  

^a ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^b U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

Author keywords

Fire simulation; Fuel mapping; Fuel modeling; Gradient modeling; Remote sensing

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035639731     PISSN: 10498001     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1071/wf01028     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Agee JK, Huff MH (1987) Fuel succession in a western hemlock/ Douglas-fir forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17(7), 697-704.
2. Albini FA (1976) Estimating wildfire behavior and effects. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-30. 23 pp.
3. Ambrosia VG, Windham L, Wolf D (1992) Forest species and structure analysis using a hyperspectral scanner (AVIRIS) and terrain normalization algorithms. In 'Proceedings of the 4th Forest Service remote sensing applications conference, Orlando Florida'. (Ed. J Greer) pp. 181-189. (American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Bethesda, MD)
4. Anderson HE (1982) Aids to determining fuel models for estimating fire behavior. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station General Technical Report INT-122. Ogden, UT. 22 pp.
5. Anderson M, Bourgeron P, Bryer MT, Crawford R, Engelking L, Faber-Langendoen D, Gallyoun M, Goodin K, Grossman DH, Landaal S, Metzler K, Patterson KD, Pyne M, Reid M, Sneddon L, Weakley AS (1998) International classification of ecological communities: Terrestrial vegetation of the United States. Volume II. The National Vegetation Classification System: list of types. (The Nature Conservancy: Arlington, VA)
6. Andrews PL (1989) Application of fire growth simulation models in fire management. In '10th Conference on fire and forest meteorology, October 26-28, Ottawa'. (Eds DC Maciver, H Auld, and RA Whitewood) pp. 317-321.
7. Arno SF, Simmerman DG, Keane RE (1985) Characterizing succession within a forest habitat type - an approach designed for resource managers. USDA Forest Service Research Note INT-357. 8 pp.
8. Asner GP (1998) Biophysical and biochemical sources of variability in canopy reflectance. Remote Sensing of the Environment 64(3), 234-253.
9. Ball GL, Guertin DP (1992) Advances in fire spread simulation. In 'Proceedings on the 3rd Forest Service remote sensing applications conference - Protecting natural resources with remote sensing', 9-13 April, Tucson, Arizona, pp. 241-249. (American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Bethesda, MD)
10. Barrett SW, Arno SF (1993) Classifying fire regimes and defining their topographic controls in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. In 'Proceedings of the 11th conference on fire and forest meteorology'. (Eds PL Andrews and DF Potts) pp. 299-307. (Society of American Foresters: Bethesda, MD)
11. Bazzaz FA (1979) The physiological ecology of plant succession. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 10, 351-371.
12. Beifort W (1988) Controlled-scale aerial sampling photography: Development and implications for multiresource inventory. Journal of Forestry 86(11), 21-28.
13. Belward AS, Kennedy PJ, Gregoire JM (1994) The limitations and potential of AVHRR GAC data for continental scale fire studies. International Journal of Remote Sensing 15(11), 2215-2234.
14. Bergen K, Dobson C (1999) Monitoring forest biomass, harvest, and ANPP using SAR. In 'Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters 1998 national convention', pp. 88-97. (Society of American Foresters: Bethesda, MD)
15. Bobbe T, Lachowski H, Maus P, Greer J, C. Dull C (2001) A primer on mapping vegetation using remote sensing. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, 277-287.
16. Brown JK (1970) A method for inventorying downed woody fuel. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-16. 24 pp.
17. Brown JK, Bevins CD (1986) Surface fuel loadings and predicted fire behavior for vegetation types in the northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Note INT-358. Ogden, UT. 9 pp.
18. Brown JK, See TE (1981) Downed dead woody fuel and biomass in the northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station General Technical Report INT-117. Ogden, UT. 48 pp.
19. Brzeziecki B, Kienast F, Wildi O (1993) A simulated map of the potential natural forest vegetation of Switzerland. Journal of Vegetation Science 4, 499-508.
20. Bufton JL (1989) Laser altimetry measurements from aircraft and spacecraft. Proceedings of the IEEE 77, 463-477.
21. Burgan RE (1987) Concepts and interpreted examples in advanced fuel modeling. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-238. 40 pp.
22. Burgan RE, Hardy CC (1994) Ground truthing a national AVHRR based vegetation fuels map. In 'Proceedings of the 12th conference on fire and forest meteorology', pp. 428-436. (Society of American Foresters: Bethesda, MD)
23. Burgan RE, Klaver RW, Klaver JM (1998) Fuel models and fire potential from satellite and surface observations. International Journal of midland Fire 8(3), 159-170.
24. Burgan RE, Rothermal RC (1984) BEHAVE: fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling system-FUEL subsystem. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-167. 126 pp.
25. Burgan RE, Shasby MB (1984) Mapping broad area fire potential from digital fuel, terrain, and weather data. Journal of Forestry 82, 228-231.
26. Campbell J, Weinstein D, Finney M (1995) Forest fire behavior modeling integrating GIS and BEHAVE. In 'Analysis in support of ecosystem management'. (Compiler JE Thompson) pp. 184-192. USDA Forest Service Ecosystem Management Center Report, Washington D.C.
27. Chladil MA, Nunez M (1995) Assessing grassland moisture and biomass in Tasmania. The application of remote sensing and empirical models for a cloudy environment. International Journal of Wildland Fire 5(3), 165-171.
28. Chuvieco E, Congalton RG (1989) Application of remote sensing and geographic information systems to forest fire hazard mapping. Remote Sensing of the Environment 29, 147-159.
29. Chuvieco E, Martin MP (1994) Global fire mapping and fire danger estimation using AVHRR images. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 60(5), 563-570.
30. Chuvieco E, Salas J, Vega C (1997) Remote sensing and GIS for longterm fire risk mapping. In 'A review of remote sensing methods for the study of large wildland fires'. (Ed. E Chuvieco) pp. 91-108. Megafires Project ENV-CT96-0256. Alcala de Henares, Spain.
31. Cohen WB (1989) Potential utility of the TM tasseled cap multispectral data transformation for crown fire hazard assessment. In 'ASPRS/ ACSM annual convention proceedings: Agenda for the 90s'. Volume 3, pp. 118-127. (Baltimore Maryland)
32. Cohen WB (1991) Chaparral vegetation reflectance and its potential utility for assessment of fire hazard. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 57(2), 203-207.
33. Cohen WB, Harmon ME, Wallin DO, Fiorella M (1996) Two decades of carbon flux from forests of the Pacific Northwest: estimates from a new modeling strategy. Bioscience 46(11), 836-844.
34. Congalton RG (1991) A review of assessing the accuracy of classifications of remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of the Environment 37, 35-46.
35. Congalton RG, Green K (1999) 'Assessing the accuracy of remotely sensed data: Principles and practices.' (Lewis Publishers, CRC Press: Boca Raton) 137 pp.
36. Covington WW, Everett RL, Steele R, Irwin LL, Daer TA, Auclair AND (1994) Historical and anticipated changes in forest ecosystems of the Inland West of the United States. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 2(1/2), 13-63.
37. Daubenmire R (1966) Vegetation: identification of typai communities. Science 151, 291-298.
38. Davis FW, Goetz S (1990) Modeling vegetation pattern using digital terrain data. Landscape Ecology 4(1), 69-80.
39. Davis FW, Quattrochi DA et al. (1991) Environmental analysis using integrated GIS and remotely sensed data: Some research needs and priorities. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 57(6), 689-697.
40. Deeming JE, Burgan RE, Cohen JD (1978) The National Fire Danger Rating System. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report.
41. Deitschman GH (1973) Mapping of habitat types throughout a national forest. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-11. 14 pp.
42. Dendron Resource Surveys (1981) Logging residue survey and the line transect method: A comparison of field and photo methods. Special Report SR-16, ENFOR Project P-28, Forest Engineering Research Institute Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. 19 pp.
43. de Vasconcelos JJP, Paul JCU, Silva S, Pereira JMC, Caetono MS, Catry FX, Oliveira TM (1998) Regional fuel mapping using a knowledge based system approach. In 'Proceedings: III international conference on forest fire research and 14th conference on fire and forest meteorology'. Vol. II, pp. 2111-2123.
44. Dixon R, Shipley W, Briggs A (1985) Landsat - a tool for mapping fuel types in the boreal forest of Manitoba: A pilot study. In 'Proceedings of the Pecora X symposium'. pp. 392-393. (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Falls Church, VA)
45. Dubayah R et al. (1997) The vegetation canopy Lidar mission. ASPRS conference: Land Satellite Information in the Next Decade. 12 pp.
46. Elvidge CD (1988) Thermal infrared reflectance of dry plant materials: 2.5-20.0 micrometers. Remote Sensing of Environment 26, 265-285.
47. Eyre FH (1980) 'Forest cover types of the United States and Canada.' (Society of American Foresters: Washington, D.C.) 147 pp.
48. Ferry GW, Clark RG, Montgomery RE, Mutch RW, Leenhouts WP, Zimmerman GT (1995) Altered fire regimes within fire-adapted ecosystems. 'Our Living Resources: a report to the nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants animals, and ecosystems.' pp. 222-224. (USDI National Biological Survey: Washington, D.C.)
49. Finney MA (1998) FARSITE users guide and technical documentation. USDA Forest Service Research Paper RMRS-RP-4. 47 pp.
50. Fischer WC (1981) Photo guide for appraising downed woody fuels in Montana forests: Interior ponderosa pine, ponderosa pine-larch-Douglas-fir, larch-Douglas-fir, and Interior Douglas-fir cover types. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-97. 133 pp.
51. Fischer WC, Bradley AF (1987) Fire ecology of western Montana forest habitat types. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-223. 95 pp.
52. Fogel R, Cromack K (1977) Effect of habitat and substrate quality on Douglas-fir litter decomposition in western Oregon. Canadian Journal of Botany 55, 1632-1640.
53. Forestry Canada Fire Danger Group (1992) 'Development and structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Prediction System.' Ontario Information Report ST-X-3. (Forestry Canada, Science for Sustainable Development: Ottawa) 12 pp.
54. Fosberg MA (1970) Drying rates of heartwood below fiber saturation. Forest Science 16, 57-63.
55. Friedl MA, Michaelsen J, Davis FW, Walker H, Schimel DS (1994) Estimating grassland biomass and leaf area index using ground and satellite data. International Journal of Remote Sensing 15(7), 1401-1420.
56. Gosz JR (1992) Gradient analysis of ecological change in time and space: Implications for forest management. Ecological Applications 2(3), 248-261.
57. Gouma V, Chronopoulou-Sereli A (1998) Wildland fire danger zoning - a methodology. International Journal of Wildland Fire 8(1), 37-43.
58. Grossman DH, Faber-Langendoen D, Weakley AS, Anderson M, Bourgeron P, Crawford R, Goodin K, Landaal S, Metzler K, Patterson K, Pyne M,. Reid M, Sneddon L (1998) 'International classification of ecological communities: Terrestrial vegetation of the United States. Volume I. The National Vegetation Classification System: development, status, and applications.' (The Nature Conservancy: Arlington VA) 126 pp.
59. Grupe MA (1998) Assessing the applicability of the Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey for FARSITE. Master's Thesis, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 95 pp.
60. Habeck JR (1976) Forests, fuels, and fire in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, Idaho. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 14, 305-353.
61. Hardwick PE, Lachowski H, Forbes J, Olson R, Roby K, Fites J (1996) Fuel loading and risk assessment for Lassen National Forest. In 'Proceedings of the seventh Forest Service remote sensing applications conference. Nassau Bay, Texas, 6-10 April 1998'. (Ed. JD Greer) pp. 328-339. (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Bethesda, MD)
62. Hardy CC, Burgan RE, Ottmar RD (2000) A database for spatial assessments of fire characteristics, fuel profiles, and PM10 emissions. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 11(1/2), 229-245.
63. Harmon ME, Franklin JF, Swanson FJ, Sollins P, Gregory SV, Lattin JD, Anderson NH, Cline SP, Aumen NG, Sedell JR, Lienkaemper GW, Cromack K, Cummins KW (1986) Ecology of coarse woody debris in temperate ecosystems. Advances in Ecological Research 15, 133-302.
64. Hawkes B, Niemann O, Goodenough D, Lawson B, Thomson A, Sahle W, Fuglem P, Beck J, Bell B, Symington P (1995) Forest fire fuel type mapping using GIS and remote sensing in British Columbia. In 'Proceedings of the symposium GIS Applications in Natural Resources 2 - The 9th symposium on Geographic Information Systems, Vancouver, British Columbia'. (Eds M Heit, HD Parker and A Shortreid) pp. 290-299.
65. Hessberg PF, Smith BG, Kreiter SG et al. (1998) Historical and current forest and range landscapes in the Interior Columbia River Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Part I: Linking vegetation patterns and landscape vulnerability to potential insect and pathogen disturbances. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-558. 357 pp.
66. Hirabuki Y (1991) Heterogeneous dispersal of tree litterfall corresponding with patchy canopy structure in a temperate mixed forest. Vegetatio 94, 69-79.
67. Hornby, L.G. (1935) Fuel type mapping in Region One. Journal of Forestry 33(1), 67-72.
68. Hornby LG (1936) Fire control planning in the northern Rocky Mountain region. Northern Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Progress Report Number 1. Missoula, MT. 180 pp.
69. Hungerford RD, Harrington MG, Frandsen WH, Ryan KC, Niehoff GJ (1991) Influence of fire on factors that affect site productivity. In 'Proceedings of the symposium on management and productivity of western-montane forest soils', pp. 32-50. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280.
70. Hungerford RD, Nemani RR, Running SW, Coughlan JC (1989) MTCLIM: A mountain microclimate simulation model. USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-414. 52 pp.
71. Jain A, Ravan SA, Singh RK, Das KK, Roy PS (1996) Forest fire risk modelling using remote sensing and geographic information systems. Current Science 70(10), 928-933.
72. Jakubauskas ME (1996) Thematic mapper characterization of lodgepole pine serai stages in Yellowstone National Park, USA. Remote Sensing of Environment 56, 118-132.
73. Jensen JR (1998) 'Introductory digital image processing.' (Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey) 379 pp.
74. Jensen ME, Hann W, Keane RE, Caratti J, Bourgeron PS (1993) ECODATA - A multiresource data base and analysis system for ecosystem description and evaluation. In 'Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment. Volume II. Ecosystem management: Principles and applications'. (Eds ME Jensen and PS Bourgeron) pp. 249-265. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, National Forest System Information Report.
75. Jeske BW, Bevins CD (1979) Spatial and temporal distribution of natural fuels in Glacier Park. In 'Proceedings of the 1st conference on scientific research in National Parks. Volume II. USDI National Park'. (Ed. RM Linn) Transactions and Proceedings Number 5, pp. 1219-1224.
76. Kalabokidis KD, Omi PN (1995) Isarithmic analysis of forest fire fuelbed arrays. Ecological Modelling 80, 47-55.
77. Kalliola R, Syrjanen K (1991) To what extent are vegetation types visible in satellite imagery. Annales Botanici Fennici 28, 45-57.
78. Kasischke ES, French NFH, Bourgeau-Chavez LL, Ustin SL, Christensen NL (1998) Estimating the release of carbon from forest fires in Alaska using satellite remote sensing data, http:// cstars.ucdavis.edu/papers/sustin/carbon/paper.html
79. Keane RE, Garner JL, Schmidt KM, Long DG, Menakis JP, Finney MA (1998a) Development of the input data Layers for the FARSITE fire growth model for the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness Complex, USA. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-3. 121 pp.
80. Keane RE, Long DG, Schmidt KM, Mincemoyer S, Garner JL (1998b) Mapping fuels for spatial fire simulations using remote sensing and biophysical modeling. In 'Proceedings of the seventh Forest Service remote sensing applications conference. Nassau Bay, Texas, 6-10 April 1998'. (Ed. JD Greer) pp. 301-316. (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Bethesda, MD)
81. Keane RE, McNicoll CH, Schmidt KM, Garner JL (1997) Spatially explicit ecological inventories for ecosystem management planning using gradient modeling and remote sensing. In 'Proceedings of the sixth Forest Service remote sensing applications conference -Remote sensing; people in partnership with technology', pp. 135-146. (American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Bethesda, MD) 448 pp.
82. Keane RE, Menakis JP, Long D, Hann WJ, Bevins C (1996a) Simulating coarse scale vegetation dynamics with the Columbia River Basin Succession Model-CRBSUM. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-340. 50 pp.
83. Keane RE, Mincemoyer SA, Schmidt KA, Long DG, Garner JL (2000) Mapping vegetation and fuels for fire management on the Gila National Forest Complex, New Mexico. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-46-CD.
84. Keane RE, Morgan P, Menakis JP (1994) Landscape assessment of the decline of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, Montana, USA. Northwest Science 68(3), 213-229.
85. Keane RE, Morgan P, Running SW (19966) Fire-BGC - a mechanistic ecological process model for simulating fire succession on coniferous forest landscapes of the Northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-RP-484. Ogden, UT. 122 pp.
86. Kessell SR (1976) Gradient modeling: A new approach to fire modeling and wilderness resource management. Environmental Management 1(1), 39-48.
87. Kessell SR (1979) 'Gradient modeling: resource and fire management.' (Springer-Verlag: New York) 432 pp.
88. Kessell SR, Cattelino PJ (1978) Evaluation of a fire behavior integration system for southern California chaparral wildlands. Environmental Management 2(2), 135-159.
89. Klaver JM, Klaver RW, Burgan RE (1998) Using GIS to assess forest fire hazard in the Mediterranean region of the United States, http:// www.esri.com/library/userconf/proc97/PROC97/TO300/PAP286/ P286.HTM. 12 pp.
90. Kourtz PH (1977) An application of Landsat digital technology to forest fire fuel mapping. In 'Fire ecology in resource management: A workshop'. (Ed. DE Dube) pp. 79-81. (Northern Forest Research Centre: Edmonton, Alberta) Information Report NOR-X-21.
91. Lachowski H, Maus P, Golden M, Johnson J, Landrum V, Powell J, Varner V, Wirth T, Gonzales J, S. Bain S (1995) 'Guidelines for the use of digital imagery for vegetation mapping.' USDA Forest Service Engineering Staff EM-7140-25. 168 pp.
92. Leenhouts B (1998) Assessment of biomass burning in the conterminous United States. Conservation Biology (Online) 2(1), 1-24. http://www.consecol.org/vol2/iss1/art1
93. Lenihan JM, Daly C, Bachelet D, Neilson RP (1998) Simulating broadscale fire severity in a dynamic global vegetation model. Northwest Science 72(4), 91-101.
94. Loveland TR, Merchant JW, Ohlen DO, Brown JF (1991) Development of a land-cover characteristics database for the conterminous U.S. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 57(11), 1453-1463.
95. Loveland TR, Ohlen DO, Brown JF, Reed BC, Merchant JW (1993) Prototype 1990 conterminous United States land cover characteristics data set CD-ROM. EROS Data Center, US Geological Survey CD-ROM 9307. 1 disk.
96. Lunetta RS, Lyon JG, Guindon B, Elvidge CD (1998) North American landscape characterization dataset development and data fusion issues. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 64(8), 821-829.
97. Mallot N (1984) Alaska fuels fact sheet summary. S-390 Immediate Fire Behavior, State of Alaska, Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry Special Report No. 3. 3 pp.
98. Mark CA, Bushey CL, Smetanka W (1995) Fuel model identification and mapping for fire behavior prediction in the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness, Montana and Wyoming. In 'Proceedings: symposium on fire in wilderness and park management'. (Technical coordinators JK Brown, RW Mutch, CW Spoon and RH Wakimoto) pp. 227-229. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-GTR-320.
99. Maselli F, Rodolfi A, Bottai L, Conese C (1996) Evaluation of forest fire risk by the analysis of environmental data and TM images. International Journal of Remote Sensing 17(7), 1417-1423.
100. McKinley RA, Chine EP, Werth LF (1985) Operational fire fuels mapping with NOAA-AVHRR data. Pecora X symposium proceedings, pp. 295-304. (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Falls Church, VA)
101. Menakis JP, Keane RE, Long DG (2001) Mapping ecological attributes using an integrated vegetation classification approach. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 11 (1/2), 245-265.
102. Merrill EH, Bramble-Brodahl MK, Marrs RW, Boyce MS (1993) Estimation of green herbaceous phytomass from Landsat MSS data in Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Range Management 46, 151-157.
103. Miller W, Johnston D (1985) Comparison of fire fuel maps produced using MSS and AVHRR data. Pecora X symposium, pp:, 305-314. (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Falls Church, VA)
104. Millington AC, Critchley RW, Douglas TD, Ryan P (1994) 'Estimating woody biomass in sub-Saharan Africa.' (The World Bank: Washington, D.C.) 191 pp.
105. Minore D (1979) Comparative autecological characteristics of northwestern tree species: a literature review. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station General Technical Report PNW-87 Portland, OR. 28 pp.
106. Morris WG (1970) Photo inventory of fine logging slash. Photogrammetric Engineering 36, 1252-1256.
107. Muller F (1998) Gradients in ecological systems. Ecological Modelling 108, 3-21.
108. Muraro SJ (1970) Slash fuel inventories from 70 mm low-level photography. Canadian Forest Service Publication 1268. (Canadian Forest Service: Ottawa, Ontario) 63 pp.
109. Mutch RW (1995) Restoring forest health: do we have the will to apply science findings. In 'Proceedings of the conference Forest Health and fire danger in Inland Western Forests', pp. 18-22. (American Forests: Washington D.C.)
110. Mutch RW, Arno SF, Brown JK, Carlson CE, Ottmar RD, Peterson JL (1993) Forest health in the Blue Mountains: A management strategy for fire-adapted ecosystems. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-310. 14 pp.
111. Naesset E (1997) Estimating timber volume of forest stands using airborne laser scanner data. Remote Sensing of Environment 61, 246-253.
112. Nelson R (1997) Modeling forest canopy heights: the effects of canopy shape. Remote Sensing of Environment 60, 327-334.
113. Nelson R, Swift R, Krabill W (1988) Using airborne lasers to estimate forest canopy and stand characteristics. Journal of Forestry 86, 31-38.
114. O'Hara K, Latham P, Hessburg P, Smith B (1996) Development of a forest stand structural stage classification for the Interior Columbia River Basin. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 11(3), 97-102.
115. Ohmann JL, T.A. Spies TA (1998) Regional gradient analysis and spatial pattern of woody plant communities of Oregon forests. Ecological Monographs 68(2), 151-182.
116. Oliver CD, Larson BC (1990) 'Forest stand dynamics.' (McGraw Hill: New York) 467 pp.
117. Olsen J (1981) Carbon balance in relation to fire regimes. In 'Proceedings of the conference fire regimes and ecosystem properties'. (Technical Coordinators HA Mooney, TM Bonnicksen, NL Christensen, JE Lotan and WA Reiners) pp. 327-378. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report WO-26.
118. Omernik JM (1987) Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77(1), 118-125.
119. Ottmar RD, Vihnanek R, Alvarado E (1994) Forest health assessment: Air quality tradeoffs. In 'Proceedings of the 12th international conference on fire and forest Meteorology, 26-28 October 1993, Jekyll Island, Georgia', pp. 47-62. (Society of American Foresters: Bethesda, MD)
120. Pala, S, Taylor D (1989) The foundation for province-wide forest fuel mapping. Proceedings, 12th Canadian symposium on remote sensing, Vancouver, B.C., July 1989.
121. Pala S, Taylor D, Holder G (1990) Integrating satellite-derived forest fuel data into fire management decision support models. Proceedings, 2nd National GIS conference, Ottawa, 5-8 March 1990.
122. Pfister RD, Kovalchik BL, Arno SF, Presby RC (1977) Forest habitat types of Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station General Technical Report INT-34. Ogden, UT. 174 pp..
123. Quigley TM, Graham RT, R.W. Haynes RW (1996) An integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia River Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station General Technical Report PNW-GTR-382. Portland OR. 126 pp.
124. Redmond RL, Prather ML (1996) Mapping existing vegetation and land cover across western Montana and north Idaho. Report on file at: USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Ecosystem Management. PO Box 7669, Missoula, MT. Contract 53-0343-4-000012. 211 pp.
125. Reid M, Bourgeron P, Humphries H, Jensen M (1995) Documentation of the modeling of potential vegetation at three spatial scales using biophysical settings in the Columbia River Basin. Report on file at Northern Region Ecosystem Management Project for completion of contract 53-04H1-6890.
126. Reinhardt ED, Keane RE, Brown JK (1997) First order fire effects model: FOFEM 4.0, User's Guide. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-GTR-344. 65 pp.
127. Richards GD (1990) An elliptical growth model of forest-fire fronts and its numerical solution. International Journal of Numerical Methods in Engineering 30, 1163-1179.
128. Rignot E, Way J, Williams C, Viereck L (1994) Radar estimates of aboveground biomass in boreal forests of interior Alaska. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 32(5), 1117-1124.
129. Roberts D, Gardner M, Regelbrugge J, Pedreros D, Ustin S (1998) Mapping the distribution of wildfire fuels using AVIRIS in the Santa Monica Mountains, http://cstars.ucdavis.edu/nasa-essp/smm-fires/paper.html. 6 pp.
130. Root RR, Stitt SCF, Nyquist MO, Waggoner GS, Agee JK (1985) Vegetation and fire fuel models mapping of North Cascades National Park. ACSM-ASPRS Annual Convention Technical Paper 3, 78-85.
131. Root RR, van Wagtendonk JW (1999) Hyperspectral analysis of multi-temporal Landsat TM data for mapping fuels in Yosemite National Park. In 'Annual ASPRS Conference, Portland, OR, 17-21 May 1999'. (Society of American Photogrammeters: Bethesda, MD) pp. 399-408.
132. Rothermel RC (1972) A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildand fuels. USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-115.
133. Rothermel RC (1991) Predicting behavior and size of crown fires in the northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-438. 46 pp.
134. Running SW (1990) Estimating terrestrial primary productivity by combining remote sensing and ecosystem simulation. In 'Remote sensing of biosphere functioning'. (Eds RJ Hobbs and HA Mooney) pp. 65-85. (Springer-Verlag: New York)
135. Running SW, Coughlan JC (1988) A general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications. I. Hydrologic balance, canopy gas exchange and primary production processes. Ecological Modelling 42, 125-154.
136. Running SW, Gower ST (1991) FOREST-BGC, a general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications. II. Dynamic carbon allocation and nitrogen budgets. Tree Physiology 9, 147-160.
137. Running SW, Hunt ER (1993) Generalization of a forest ecosystem process model for other biomes, BIOME-BGC, and an application for global-scale models. In 'Scaling physiological processes: leaf to globe', pp. 141-157. (Academic Press: New York)
138. Running SW, Nemani RR, Peterson DL, Band LE, Potts DF, Pierce LL, Spanner MA (1989) Mapping regional forest evapotranspiration and photosynthesis by coupling satellite data with ecosystem simulation. Ecology 70(4), 1090-1101.
139. Salas J, Chuvieco E (1994) Geographic information systems for wildland fire risk mapping. Wildfire 3(2), 7-13.
140. Sandberg DV, Ottmar RD, Cushon GH (2001) Characterizing fuels in the 21st Century. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, 381-387.
141. Sanderlin JC, Sunderson JM (1975) A simulation for wildland fire management planning support (FIREMAN). In 'Prototype models for FIREMAN (Part II): Campaign fire evaluation'. Volume II. Mission Research Corp. Contract No. 231-343, Spec. 222, 249 pp.
142. Sapsis D, Bahro B, Spreo J, Gabriel J, Jones R, Greenwood G (1996) An assessment of current risks, fuels, and potential fire behavior in the Sierra Nevada. Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project Final Report to Congress: Status of the Sierra Nevada Volume II, Assessment and scientific basis for management options. Centers for Water and Wildland Resources Report 37, pp. 759-785. (University of California: Davis)
143. Schowengerdt RA (1983) 'Techniques for image processing and classification in remote sensing.' (Academic Press: New York) 289 pp.
144. Shao, Guofan, Zhao G, Shidong S, Shugart H, Wang S, Schaller J (1996) Forest cover types derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery for Changbai Mountain area of China. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26, 206-216.
145. Shasby MB, Burgan RE, Johnson RR (1981) Broad area forest fuels and topography mapping using digital Landsat and terrain data. In 'Proceedings of the 7th international symposium on machine processing of remotely sensed data, West LaFayette, LO'. pp. 529-537.
146. Shiflet TN (Ed.). (1994) 'Rangeland cover types of the United States.' (Society of Range Management: Denver, CO) 151 pp.
147. Simard AJ (1996) Fire severity, changing scales, and how things hang together. International Journal of Wildland Fire 1(1), 23-34.
148. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) (1991) 'State soil geographic data base (STATSGO): Data user's guide.' U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service Misc. Publication No. 1492. 123 pp.
149. Steele, R, Geier-Hayes K (1989) The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: Succession and management. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station General Technical Report INT-252. 65 pp.
150. Stow D, Hope A, McKinsey D, Pray H (1993) Deriving dynamic information on fire fuel distributions in southern Californian chaparral from remotely sensed data. Landscape and Urban Planning 24, 113-127.
151. Taylor SW, Baxter GJ, Hawkes BC (1998) Modeling the effects of forest succession on fire behavior potential in southeastern BC. In 'Proceedings of the 14th Conference on fire and forest meteorology and 3rd international conference on forest fire research, 16-20 November 1998, Luso, Portugal', pp. 2059-2071.
152. Thornton PE (1998) Regional ecosystem simulation: Combining surface-and satellite-based observations to study linkages between terrestrial energy and mass budgets. PhD Dissertation, University of Montana, Missoula, MT. 280 pp.
153. Thornton PE, Running SW, White MA (1997) Generating surfaces of daily meteorological variables over large regions of complex terrain. Journal of Hydrology 190(3/4), 214-251.
154. Thornton PE, White JD (1996) Biogeochemical characterization of the Columbia River Basin using the BGC model: Model description, ecophysiological inputs and landscape description. Final Report on file at Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 61 pp.
155. Twery MJ, Elmes GA, Yuill CB (1991) Scientific exploration with an Intelligent GIS: Predicting species composition from topography. AI Applications 5(2), 45-55.
156. Ustin SL, Wessman CA, Curtiss B, Kasischke E, Way J, Vanderbilt VC (1991) Opportunities for using the EOS imaging spectrometers and synthetic aperture radar in ecological models. Ecology 72(6), 1934-1945.
157. Van Wagner CE (1977) Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 7, 23-24.
158. Van Wagner CE (1993) Prediction of crown fire behavior in two stands of jack pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 23, 442-449.
159. van Wagtendonk JW (1999) Use of Thematic Mapper imagery to map fuel models. In 'Proceedings of the 13th Conference on fire and forest meteorology. Lorne, Australia'.
160. Verbyla DL (1995) 'Satellite remote sensing of natural resources.' (Lewis Publishers, CRC Press: Boca Raton). 198 pp.
161. Waring RH, Running SW (1998) 'Forest ecosystems: Analysis at multiple scales.' 2nd edn. (Acedemic Press: San Diego) 370 pp.
162. Weltz MA, Ritchie JC,. Fox HD (1994) Comparison of laser and field
163. Werth LF, McKinley RA, Chine EP (1985) The use of wildland fire fuel maps produced with NOAA AVHRR scanner data. In 'Proceedings of the Pecora X symposium', pp. 326-331. (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Falls Church, VA)
164. Willis JM (1985) Applications of Landsat imagery for fire fuels mapping projects covering large geographic areas. In 'Proceedings of the Pecora X symposium', pp. 394-395. (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Falls Church, VA)
165. Wilson BA, Ow CFY, Heathcott M, Milne D, McCaffrey TM, Ghitter G, Franklin SE (1994) Landsat MSS classification of fire fuel types in Wood Buffalo National Park. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 4, 33-39.
166. Yool SR, Eckhardt DW, Estes JE, Cosentino MJ (1985) Describing the brushfire hazard in Southern California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 75, 417-430.