Voluntarism and the fruits of collaboration: The IBM user group, share

Technology and Culture

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 710-736

  Akera, Atsushi ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035639395     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.2001.0146     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Paul Armer, "SHARE - A Eulogy to Cooperative Effort," 31 October 1956, reproduced in Annals of the History of Computing 2 (1980): 122-29. Two general references on the history of Share are Armer's "Eulogy" and Robina Mapstone and Morton Bernstein, "The Founding of SHARE," Annals of the History of Computing 2 (1980): 363-72, the transcript of a group interview conducted by Mapstone and Bernstein. Share, although always capitalized by its participants, is not an acronym.
2. Paul Armer, "SHARE - A Eulogy to Cooperative Effort," 31 October 1956, reproduced in Annals of the History of Computing 2 (1980): 122-29. Two general references on the history of Share are Armer's "Eulogy" and Robina Mapstone and Morton Bernstein, "The Founding of SHARE," Annals of the History of Computing 2 (1980): 363-72, the transcript of a group interview conducted by Mapstone and Bernstein. Share, although always capitalized by its participants, is not an acronym.
3. While there are a number of sources on the history of programming languages, relatively little has been written about early programmers. See Michael Mahoney, "Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam, 1997), 617-34; Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 455-83; and Nathan Ensmenger, "'Building Castles in the Air': The Software Crisis and the Art of Programming, 1945-1968" (unpublished manuscript). I am also indebted to Ensmenger for his observations about the unique degree of professional autonomy and personal authority computer programmers eventually gained. On the cold war economy and its infrastructure for research, see Stewart Leslie, Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993); Ann Markusen, Peter Hall, Scott Campbell, and Sabina Dietrick, The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York, 1991); and Roger Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York, 1992). Many aspects of the cold war technical labor market can be observed in articles and recruiting advertisements from trade journals and magazines of the era, including Aviation Week and Scientific American. See also Atsushi Akera, "Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers and Computers in the United States, 1937-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 437-43.
4. While there are a number of sources on the history of programming languages, relatively little has been written about early programmers. See Michael Mahoney, "Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam, 1997), 617-34; Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 455-83; and Nathan Ensmenger, "'Building Castles in the Air': The Software Crisis and the Art of Programming, 1945-1968" (unpublished manuscript). I am also indebted to Ensmenger for his observations about the unique degree of professional autonomy and personal authority computer programmers eventually gained. On the cold war economy and its infrastructure for research, see Stewart Leslie, Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993); Ann Markusen, Peter Hall, Scott Campbell, and Sabina Dietrick, The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York, 1991); and Roger Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York, 1992). Many aspects of the cold war technical labor market can be observed in articles and recruiting advertisements from trade journals and magazines of the era, including Aviation Week and Scientific American. See also Atsushi Akera, "Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers and Computers in the United States, 1937-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 437-43.
5. While there are a number of sources on the history of programming languages, relatively little has been written about early programmers. See Michael Mahoney, "Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam, 1997), 617-34; Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 455-83; and Nathan Ensmenger, "'Building Castles in the Air': The Software Crisis and the Art of Programming, 1945-1968" (unpublished manuscript). I am also indebted to Ensmenger for his observations about the unique degree of professional autonomy and personal authority computer programmers eventually gained. On the cold war economy and its infrastructure for research, see Stewart Leslie, Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993); Ann Markusen, Peter Hall, Scott Campbell, and Sabina Dietrick, The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York, 1991); and Roger Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York, 1992). Many aspects of the cold war technical labor market can be observed in articles and recruiting advertisements from trade journals and magazines of the era, including Aviation Week and Scientific American. See also Atsushi Akera, "Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers and Computers in the United States, 1937-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 437-43.
6. While there are a number of sources on the history of programming languages, relatively little has been written about early programmers. See Michael Mahoney, "Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam, 1997), 617-34; Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 455-83; and Nathan Ensmenger, "'Building Castles in the Air': The Software Crisis and the Art of Programming, 1945-1968" (unpublished manuscript). I am also indebted to Ensmenger for his observations about the unique degree of professional autonomy and personal authority computer programmers eventually gained. On the cold war economy and its infrastructure for research, see Stewart Leslie, Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993); Ann Markusen, Peter Hall, Scott Campbell, and Sabina Dietrick, The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York, 1991); and Roger Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York, 1992). Many aspects of the cold war technical labor market can be observed in articles and recruiting advertisements from trade journals and magazines of the era, including Aviation Week and Scientific American. See also Atsushi Akera, "Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers and Computers in the United States, 1937-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 437-43.
7. While there are a number of sources on the history of programming languages, relatively little has been written about early programmers. See Michael Mahoney, "Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam, 1997), 617-34; Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 455-83; and Nathan Ensmenger, "'Building Castles in the Air': The Software Crisis and the Art of Programming, 1945-1968" (unpublished manuscript). I am also indebted to Ensmenger for his observations about the unique degree of professional autonomy and personal authority computer programmers eventually gained. On the cold war economy and its infrastructure for research, see Stewart Leslie, Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993); Ann Markusen, Peter Hall, Scott Campbell, and Sabina Dietrick, The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York, 1991); and Roger Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York, 1992). Many aspects of the cold war technical labor market can be observed in articles and recruiting advertisements from trade journals and magazines of the era, including Aviation Week and Scientific American. See also Atsushi Akera, "Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers and Computers in the United States, 1937-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 437-43.
8. While there are a number of sources on the history of programming languages, relatively little has been written about early programmers. See Michael Mahoney, "Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam, 1997), 617-34; Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 455-83; and Nathan Ensmenger, "'Building Castles in the Air': The Software Crisis and the Art of Programming, 1945-1968" (unpublished manuscript). I am also indebted to Ensmenger for his observations about the unique degree of professional autonomy and personal authority computer programmers eventually gained. On the cold war economy and its infrastructure for research, see Stewart Leslie, Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993); Ann Markusen, Peter Hall, Scott Campbell, and Sabina Dietrick, The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York, 1991); and Roger Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York, 1992). Many aspects of the cold war technical labor market can be observed in articles and recruiting advertisements from trade journals and magazines of the era, including Aviation Week and Scientific American. See also Atsushi Akera, "Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers and Computers in the United States, 1937-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 437-43.
9. While there are a number of sources on the history of programming languages, relatively little has been written about early programmers. See Michael Mahoney, "Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam, 1997), 617-34; Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 455-83; and Nathan Ensmenger, "'Building Castles in the Air': The Software Crisis and the Art of Programming, 1945-1968" (unpublished manuscript). I am also indebted to Ensmenger for his observations about the unique degree of professional autonomy and personal authority computer programmers eventually gained. On the cold war economy and its infrastructure for research, see Stewart Leslie, Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993); Ann Markusen, Peter Hall, Scott Campbell, and Sabina Dietrick, The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York, 1991); and Roger Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York, 1992). Many aspects of the cold war technical labor market can be observed in articles and recruiting advertisements from trade journals and magazines of the era, including Aviation Week and Scientific American. See also Atsushi Akera, "Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers and Computers in the United States, 1937-1968" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 437-43.
10. On technical intermediaries, see Carolyn Goldstein, "From Service to Sales: Home Economics in Light and Power, 1920-1940," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 121-52; and Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990), 154-56 .
11. On technical intermediaries, see Carolyn Goldstein, "From Service to Sales: Home Economics in Light and Power, 1920-1940," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 121-52; and Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990), 154-56 .
12. My emphasis on professionalization as a process is based on symbolic interactionist studies of work and the professions. The seminal work in this area is Rue Bucher and Anselm Strauss, "Professions in Process," American Journal of Sociology 66 (1961): 325-34. General studies of professionalization and the history of the professions include Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay in the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988); Samuel Haber, Quest for Authority and Honor in the American Professions (Chicago, 1991); and Harold Perkin, The Third Revolution: Professional Elites in the Modern World (London, 1996). On the professional stature of engineers, see Edwin Layton, Revolt of the Engineers: Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland, 1971).
13. My emphasis on professionalization as a process is based on symbolic interactionist studies of work and the professions. The seminal work in this area is Rue Bucher and Anselm Strauss, "Professions in Process," American Journal of Sociology 66 (1961): 325-34. General studies of professionalization and the history of the professions include Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay in the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988); Samuel Haber, Quest for Authority and Honor in the American Professions (Chicago, 1991); and Harold Perkin, The Third Revolution: Professional Elites in the Modern World (London, 1996). On the professional stature of engineers, see Edwin Layton, Revolt of the Engineers: Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland, 1971).
14. My emphasis on professionalization as a process is based on symbolic interactionist studies of work and the professions. The seminal work in this area is Rue Bucher and Anselm Strauss, "Professions in Process," American Journal of Sociology 66 (1961): 325-34. General studies of professionalization and the history of the professions include Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay in the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988); Samuel Haber, Quest for Authority and Honor in the American Professions (Chicago, 1991); and Harold Perkin, The Third Revolution: Professional Elites in the Modern World (London, 1996). On the professional stature of engineers, see Edwin Layton, Revolt of the Engineers: Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland, 1971).
15. My emphasis on professionalization as a process is based on symbolic interactionist studies of work and the professions. The seminal work in this area is Rue Bucher and Anselm Strauss, "Professions in Process," American Journal of Sociology 66 (1961): 325-34. General studies of professionalization and the history of the professions include Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay in the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988); Samuel Haber, Quest for Authority and Honor in the American Professions (Chicago, 1991); and Harold Perkin, The Third Revolution: Professional Elites in the Modern World (London, 1996). On the professional stature of engineers, see Edwin Layton, Revolt of the Engineers: Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland, 1971).
16. My emphasis on professionalization as a process is based on symbolic interactionist studies of work and the professions. The seminal work in this area is Rue Bucher and Anselm Strauss, "Professions in Process," American Journal of Sociology 66 (1961): 325-34. General studies of professionalization and the history of the professions include Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay in the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago, 1988); Samuel Haber, Quest for Authority and Honor in the American Professions (Chicago, 1991); and Harold Perkin, The Third Revolution: Professional Elites in the Modern World (London, 1996). On the professional stature of engineers, see Edwin Layton, Revolt of the Engineers: Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland, 1971).
17. I wish to extend special recognition to the anonymous reviewer who pointed out the need to emphasize this aspect of the study. For an important essay on the relationship between knowledge, professions, and institutions, see Charles E. Rosenberg, "Toward an Ecology of Knowledge: On Discipline, Context, and History," in No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought, rev. ed. (Baltimore, 1997), 225-39. Another important early symbolic interactionist study is Howard Becker and James Carper, "The Development of an Identification with an Occupation," Journal of Sociology 66 (1956): 289-98. In contrast to Becker and Carper's essay, which examines how individuals are socialized into an existing occupation, in this article I seek to describe how the skills and norms of an occupation, as well as the mechanisms for their reproduction, come into existence in the first place.
18. I wish to extend special recognition to the anonymous reviewer who pointed out the need to emphasize this aspect of the study. For an important essay on the relationship between knowledge, professions, and institutions, see Charles E. Rosenberg, "Toward an Ecology of Knowledge: On Discipline, Context, and History," in No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought, rev. ed. (Baltimore, 1997), 225-39. Another important early symbolic interactionist study is Howard Becker and James Carper, "The Development of an Identification with an Occupation," Journal of Sociology 66 (1956): 289-98. In contrast to Becker and Carper's essay, which examines how individuals are socialized into an existing occupation, in this article I seek to describe how the skills and norms of an occupation, as well as the mechanisms for their reproduction, come into existence in the first place.
19. This may have been the Ft. Worth division of Convair (Consolidated Vultee). "Engineering Computing History," n.d. [ 1961 ], Francis V. Wagner Papers (hereafter CBI 6), folder 12, Charles Babbage Institute for the History of Information Processing, University of Minnesota Libraries, Minneapolis, Minn. (hereafter CBI). Emerson Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 71-72. Eckert based his studies on earlier work in Britain; see Mary Croarken, Early Scientific Computing in Britain (Oxford, 1990), 23-32. Larry Owens, "Mathematicians at War: Warren Weaver and the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-45," in The History of Modern Mathematics, vol. 2, Institutions and Applications, ed. David Rowe (Boston, 1989).
20. This may have been the Ft. Worth division of Convair (Consolidated Vultee). "Engineering Computing History," n.d. [ 1961 ], Francis V. Wagner Papers (hereafter CBI 6), folder 12, Charles Babbage Institute for the History of Information Processing, University of Minnesota Libraries, Minneapolis, Minn. (hereafter CBI). Emerson Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 71-72. Eckert based his studies on earlier work in Britain; see Mary Croarken, Early Scientific Computing in Britain (Oxford, 1990), 23-32. Larry Owens, "Mathematicians at War: Warren Weaver and the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-45," in The History of Modern Mathematics, vol. 2, Institutions and Applications, ed. David Rowe (Boston, 1989).
21. This may have been the Ft. Worth division of Convair (Consolidated Vultee). "Engineering Computing History," n.d. [ 1961 ], Francis V. Wagner Papers (hereafter CBI 6), folder 12, Charles Babbage Institute for the History of Information Processing, University of Minnesota Libraries, Minneapolis, Minn. (hereafter CBI). Emerson Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 71-72. Eckert based his studies on earlier work in Britain; see Mary Croarken, Early Scientific Computing in Britain (Oxford, 1990), 23-32. Larry Owens, "Mathematicians at War: Warren Weaver and the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-45," in The History of Modern Mathematics, vol. 2, Institutions and Applications, ed. David Rowe (Boston, 1989).
22. This may have been the Ft. Worth division of Convair (Consolidated Vultee). "Engineering Computing History," n.d. [ 1961 ], Francis V. Wagner Papers (hereafter CBI 6), folder 12, Charles Babbage Institute for the History of Information Processing, University of Minnesota Libraries, Minneapolis, Minn. (hereafter CBI). Emerson Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 71-72. Eckert based his studies on earlier work in Britain; see Mary Croarken, Early Scientific Computing in Britain (Oxford, 1990), 23-32. Larry Owens, "Mathematicians at War: Warren Weaver and the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-45," in The History of Modern Mathematics, vol. 2, Institutions and Applications, ed. David Rowe (Boston, 1989).
23. This may have been the Ft. Worth division of Convair (Consolidated Vultee). "Engineering Computing History," n.d. [ 1961 ], Francis V. Wagner Papers (hereafter CBI 6), folder 12, Charles Babbage Institute for the History of Information Processing, University of Minnesota Libraries, Minneapolis, Minn. (hereafter CBI). Emerson Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 71-72. Eckert based his studies on earlier work in Britain; see Mary Croarken, Early Scientific Computing in Britain (Oxford, 1990), 23-32. Larry Owens, "Mathematicians at War: Warren Weaver and the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-45," in The History of Modern Mathematics, vol. 2, Institutions and Applications, ed. David Rowe (Boston, 1989).
24. [C. L. Davis], "Tabular Calculations for the Structures Section," 21 May 1946; F. M. Sigafoese to Engineering Facilities, 5 September 1946; and P. E. Bisch to R. L. Schleicher and C. L. Davis, 24 August 1950, CBI 6, folder 12. Fred Gruenberger, "A Short History of Digital Computing in Southern California," draft, 11 November 1958, CBI 6, folder 6. On postwar military strategy and aviation research, see Akera, "Calculating a Natural World," 425-43.
25. [C. L. Davis], "Tabular Calculations for the Structures Section," 21 May 1946; F. M. Sigafoese to Engineering Facilities, 5 September 1946; and P. E. Bisch to R. L. Schleicher and C. L. Davis, 24 August 1950, CBI 6, folder 12. Fred Gruenberger, "A Short History of Digital Computing in Southern California," draft, 11 November 1958, CBI 6, folder 6. On postwar military strategy and aviation research, see Akera, "Calculating a Natural World," 425-43.
26. [C. L. Davis], "Tabular Calculations for the Structures Section," 21 May 1946; F. M. Sigafoese to Engineering Facilities, 5 September 1946; and P. E. Bisch to R. L. Schleicher and C. L. Davis, 24 August 1950, CBI 6, folder 12. Fred Gruenberger, "A Short History of Digital Computing in Southern California," draft, 11 November 1958, CBI 6, folder 6. On postwar military strategy and aviation research, see Akera, "Calculating a Natural World," 425-43.
27. The Rand Corporation was an air force think tank established in 1947; the Institute for Numerical Analysis was a unit of the National Bureau of Standards established with navy and air force funds at the University of California at Los Angeles specifically to bring numerical techniques to the region. See Frank Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York, 1983), and J. H. Curtiss, "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards: A Progress Report Covering the First Five Years of Its Existence," 1 April 1953, Margaret Fox Papers, box J, folder 2, CBI.
28. The Rand Corporation was an air force think tank established in 1947; the Institute for Numerical Analysis was a unit of the National Bureau of Standards established with navy and air force funds at the University of California at Los Angeles specifically to bring numerical techniques to the region. See Frank Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York, 1983), and J. H. Curtiss, "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards: A Progress Report Covering the First Five Years of Its Existence," 1 April 1953, Margaret Fox Papers, box J, folder 2, CBI.
29. On the Aircraft War Production Council, see Robert Ferguson, "Technology and Cooperation in American Aircraft Manufacture during World War II" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1996).
30. Bisch to Schleicher and Davis, 24 August 1950; "Engineering Computing History"; Gruenberger, 10; Mapstone and Bernstein (n. 1 above), 367-68. Northrop's contributions to the CPC are described in Akera, "Calculating a Natural World" (n. 2 above), 446-59. Collaboration among early CPC installations was also fostered by a special group of IBM representatives; see Atsushi Akera, "Discovering the Scientific User: Cuthbert Hurd and His Applied Science Field Men" (unpublished manuscript).
31. Bisch to Schleicher and Davis, 24 August 1950; "Engineering Computing History"; Gruenberger, 10; Mapstone and Bernstein (n. 1 above), 367-68. Northrop's contributions to the CPC are described in Akera, "Calculating a Natural World" (n. 2 above), 446-59. Collaboration among early CPC installations was also fostered by a special group of IBM representatives; see Atsushi Akera, "Discovering the Scientific User: Cuthbert Hurd and His Applied Science Field Men" (unpublished manuscript).
32. Bisch to Schleicher and Davis, 24 August 1950; "Engineering Computing History"; Gruenberger, 10; Mapstone and Bernstein (n. 1 above), 367-68. Northrop's contributions to the CPC are described in Akera, "Calculating a Natural World" (n. 2 above), 446-59. Collaboration among early CPC installations was also fostered by a special group of IBM representatives; see Atsushi Akera, "Discovering the Scientific User: Cuthbert Hurd and His Applied Science Field Men" (unpublished manuscript).
33. For a general history of the IBM 701, see Annals of the History of Computing 5, no. 2 (April 1983).
34. The full name for PACT was the Project for the Advancement of Coding Techniques. Frank Engel to J. T. Ahlin and W. G. Bouricius, 8 April 1957, Paul Armer Collection (hereafter AC 323), box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1957," Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; Armer (n. 1 above), 124-25; Mapstone and Bernstein, 367-68. The precise reason for PACT-I's failure was somewhat more complex.
35. Although I often use the term "computing center directors" in this article, firms constructed their most senior positions for technical computing activities in diverse ways. This is reflected in the positions held by these four individuals who provided the impetus for Share: Paul Armer was the head of the numerical analysis department at Rand, Lee Amaya the head of technical computing at Lockheed, and Jack Strong and Frank Wagner the heads of central computing and engineering computing at North American.
36. Mapstone and Bernstein, 363; Armer, 124-26; FIetcher Jones, draft letter with no addressee, 9 August 1955, Share Records (hereafter CBI 21), box 1, folder 1, CBI.
37. Everett Hughes, "Going Concerns: The Study of American Institutions," in The Sociological Eye: Selected Papers (Chicago, 1971), 52-64, 54.
38. 1 use the word "men" to indicate the tenor of the early meetings, although some women were involved in the organization. Joanne Edson of Convair was one of the few female representatives during the early years, and served as Share's second secretary.
39. Technically, the computer installations, not the firms or individuals, were the members of Share. Initially, any computer installation that had one or more IBM 704s installed or on order could join. This criterion was later expanded to include IBM 709s. I use the terms "participating firm" and "member installations" to distinguish between the interests of the corporation and those of individual computing center directors and their staff members.
40. The activities of the earliest meetings are summarized under "Synopses of Proceedings," in Reference Manual for the IBM 704 (revised edition, with various sections of the manual revised at different dates; this section dated 15 October 1958), pp. 10.01-01 to 10.01-20 , CBI 21, box 3, folder2. See also Mapstone and Bernstein (n. 1 above), 370-71, and Armer (n. 1 above), 126.
41. See, for example, W. A. Ramshaw to Fletcher Jones, 6 April 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 2.
42. "Share Programs," [August 1955], CBI 21, box 1, folder 1; Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings" pp. 10.01-01 to 10.01-02. Regarding IBM's delivery schedule, the relatively small number of orders prevented IBM from ramping up production; each IBM 704 was assembled and delivered individually.
43. "Share Programs," [August 1955], CBI 21, box 1, folder 1; Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings" pp. 10.01-01 to 10.01-02. Regarding IBM's delivery schedule, the relatively small number of orders prevented IBM from ramping up production; each IBM 704 was assembled and delivered individually.
44. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, rev. ed. (n. 18 above), p. 03.21-06. "SHARE Membership and What It Entails," 10 February 1956, AC 323 box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1956." See also Reference Manual for the IBM 704, 1st ed., August 1956, p. 01.03-01, CBI 6, folder 3.
45. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, rev. ed. (n. 18 above), p. 03.21-06. "SHARE Membership and What It Entails," 10 February 1956, AC 323 box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1956." See also Reference Manual for the IBM 704, 1st ed., August 1956, p. 01.03-01, CBI 6, folder 3.
46. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, rev. ed.
47. I borrow here from sociological accounts of institutional development, where shared rules, norms, and practices, whether codified or not, are regarded as central to creating social identities. See Adele Clarke, "Social Worlds/Arenas Theory as Organizational Theory," in Social Organization and Social Process: Essays in Honor of Anselm Strauss, ed. David Maines (New York, 1991), 119-58, 131. I also draw on anthropologist Frederik Barth's suggestion that a cycle of tension, crisis, and resolution can help reinforce community solidarity. See, for example, Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference (Boston, 1969).
48. I borrow here from sociological accounts of institutional development, where shared rules, norms, and practices, whether codified or not, are regarded as central to creating social identities. See Adele Clarke, "Social Worlds/Arenas Theory as Organizational Theory," in Social Organization and Social Process: Essays in Honor of Anselm Strauss, ed. David Maines (New York, 1991), 119-58, 131. I also draw on anthropologist Frederik Barth's suggestion that a cycle of tension, crisis, and resolution can help reinforce community solidarity. See, for example, Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference (Boston, 1969).
49. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings" (n. 18 above), 10.01-09 to 10.01-13. Paul Armer, "Discussion of SHARE Agenda, Committee Item #1-4, Tape Reliability," 3 May 1956, and related correspondence; North American Aviation, "704 Machine Usage Statistics," September 1956, and other documents in CBI 21, box 1, folders 3, 4, and 7.
50. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings" (n. 18 above), 10.01-09 to 10.01-13. Paul Armer, "Discussion of SHARE Agenda, Committee Item #1-4, Tape Reliability," 3 May 1956, and related correspondence; North American Aviation, "704 Machine Usage Statistics," September 1956, and other documents in CBI 21, box 1, folders 3, 4, and 7.
51. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings" (n. 18 above), 10.01-09 to 10.01-13. Paul Armer, "Discussion of SHARE Agenda, Committee Item #1-4, Tape Reliability," 3 May 1956, and related correspondence; North American Aviation, "704 Machine Usage Statistics," September 1956, and other documents in CBI 21, box 1, folders 3, 4, and 7.
52. Fletcher Jones to Frank Engel, 21 September 1956, and "Revision to Procedure for Electing Officers," 25 September 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. D. E. Hart to Frank Engel, 20 November 1956, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1956."
53. Fletcher Jones to Frank Engel, 21 September 1956, and "Revision to Procedure for Electing Officers," 25 September 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. D. E. Hart to Frank Engel, 20 November 1956, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1956."
54. Jones to Engel, 21 September 1956, and "Government of Share," 18 September 1956. CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings," pp. 10.01-13 to 10.01-15. J. A. Strong, "Indoctrination Committee to Share," April 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 11.
55. Jones to Engel, 21 September 1956, and "Government of Share," 18 September 1956. CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings," pp. 10.01-13 to 10.01-15. J. A. Strong, "Indoctrination Committee to Share," April 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 11.
56. Jones to Engel, 21 September 1956, and "Government of Share," 18 September 1956. CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. Reference Manual for the IBM 704, "Synopses of Proceedings," pp. 10.01-13 to 10.01-15. J. A. Strong, "Indoctrination Committee to Share," April 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 11.
57. Jones to Engel, 21 September 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. "Share Committees," [December 1956], and John Greenstadt, "Report by the Chairman of the Share Mathematics Committee," 14 December 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 8.
58. Jones to Engel, 21 September 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. "Share Committees," [December 1956], and John Greenstadt, "Report by the Chairman of the Share Mathematics Committee," 14 December 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 8.
59. Davis, "Tabular Calculations for the Structures Section" (n. 7 above); Bisch to Schleicher and Davis, 24 August 1950, CBI 6, folder 12. Regarding labor substitution, the specific intent was to use IBM equipment to replace stress analysts with IBM machine operators. Davis suggested that fourteen thousand hours of a stress analyst's time could be converted to something like twenty-one hundred hours of an IBM machine operator's time.
60. Technically, the "programs" for tabulating machines, with only a partial exception for the CPC, were wired rather than loaded.
61. "701 Symposium Notes," 17-18 August 1953, CBI 6, folder 6, 11-17; Strong, "Indoctrination Committee to Share." Even as late as 1957, sixteen of twenty-eight facilities continued to operate their equipment in an on-line mode, where the attached card reader and printer served as the primary means of input and output. For readers unfamiliar with computer terminology, the following definitions may be useful: "Systems programs" are the set of programs that handle common operations such as input and output, file maintenance, and the collection of administrative information useful for a computer system's operators. They are components of and predecessors to modern operating systems such as Microsoft Windows. "Application programs" are the specific programs that make a computer perform a useful task, such as calculating the mechanical stresses on an aircraft component under specified conditions. "Mathematical subroutines" were programs designed to execute common mathematical operations that were especially useful for scientific and engineering applications. During the period described in this article, a "library" of systems programs and mathematical subroutines was often kept on one or more magnetic tape drives so that a programmer could simply refer to an existing subroutine rather than duplicate that piece of code in the application he or she was writing. It is important to keep in mind, however, that during this period the terms themselves were being defined in specific relation to the emerging labor structure of computing installations.
62. "701 Symposium Notes," 17-18 August 1953, CBI 6, folder 6, 11-17; Strong, "Indoctrination Committee to Share." Even as late as 1957, sixteen of twenty-eight facilities continued to operate their equipment in an on-line mode, where the attached card reader and printer served as the primary means of input and output. For readers unfamiliar with computer terminology, the following definitions may be useful: "Systems programs" are the set of programs that handle common operations such as input and output, file maintenance, and the collection of administrative information useful for a computer system's operators. They are components of and predecessors to modern operating systems such as Microsoft Windows. "Application programs" are the specific programs that make a computer perform a useful task, such as calculating the mechanical stresses on an aircraft component under specified conditions. "Mathematical subroutines" were programs designed to execute common mathematical operations that were especially useful for scientific and engineering applications. During the period described in this article, a "library" of systems programs and mathematical subroutines was often kept on one or more magnetic tape drives so that a programmer could simply refer to an existing subroutine rather than duplicate that piece of code in the application he or she was writing. It is important to keep in mind, however, that during this period the terms themselves were being defined in specific relation to the emerging labor structure of computing installations.
63. Liston Tatum to C. C. Hurd, memo, 2 September 1952, Cuthbert Hurd Papers, box 1, folder 4, CBI; "701 Symposium Notes."
64. Charles Davis, "A General Description of the Current and Immediately Projected Work of the I.B.M. Computing Group," 19 October 1954, CBI 6, folder 12; "Engineering Computing History" (n. 6 above).
65. Charles Davis, "A General Description of the Current and Immediately Projected Work of the I.B.M. Computing Group," 19 October 1954, CBI 6, folder 12; "Engineering Computing History" (n. 6 above).
66. "701 Symposium Notes"; Armer, "Eulogy" (n. 1 above), 124-25; Mapstone and Bernstein (n. 1 above), 365; "Rand Survey of Salary Structures," 1 October 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 9. The costs of debugging included both machine time and staff time.
67. "701 Symposium Notes"; Armer, "Eulogy" (n. 1 above), 124-25; Mapstone and Bernstein (n. 1 above), 365; "Rand Survey of Salary Structures," 1 October 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 9. The costs of debugging included both machine time and staff time.
68. "701 Symposium Notes"; Armer, "Eulogy" (n. 1 above), 124-25; Mapstone and Bernstein (n. 1 above), 365; "Rand Survey of Salary Structures," 1 October 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 9. The costs of debugging included both machine time and staff time.
69. H. N. Cantrell to Fletcher Jones, 1 May 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 3; [Francis Wagner], "Publicity on the Need for Computer Personnel," 16 January 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 2; "Debugging," n.d., CBI 21, box 1, folder 4.
70. H. N. Cantrell to Fletcher Jones, 1 May 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 3; [Francis Wagner], "Publicity on the Need for Computer Personnel," 16 January 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 2; "Debugging," n.d., CBI 21, box 1, folder 4.
71. Armer, "Eulogy," 124-25; Francis Wagner to members, "PACT IA Compiler System," 31 July 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 11.
72. Armer, "Eulogy," 124-25; Francis Wagner to members, "PACT IA Compiler System," 31 July 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 11.
73. Fletcher Jones, draft letter, 9 August 1955, CBI 21, box 1, folder 1.
74. H. S. Bright to B. B. Fowler, 4 May 1957, Herbert S. Bright Papers, box 3, folder 19, CBI.
75. Reference Manual for the IBM 704 (n. 18 above), "Synopses of Proceedings."
76. Ibid. ; "Share Programs" (n. 20 above) ; [J. L. R.], "Share Classifications," 17 November 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 7. "Utility" referred to common programs such as those for input-output, file maintenance, and binary-to-decimal conversion. The use of this term preceded that of "systems programming."
77. Ibid. ; "Share Programs" (n. 20 above) ; [J. L. R.], "Share Classifications," 17 November 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 7. "Utility" referred to common programs such as those for input-output, file maintenance, and binary-to-decimal conversion. The use of this term preceded that of "systems programming."
78. Francis Wagner to Richard King et al., 11 March 1958, CBI 6, folder 12; 709 System Subcommittee to members of Share, "Progress Report on Supervisory Control," 13 September 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 13.
79. Strong, "Indoctrination Committee" (n. 26 above); "Debugging" (n. 34 above); Francis Wagner to Richard King et al., 11 March 1958, CBI 6, folder 12.
80. Strong, "Indoctrination Committee" (n. 26 above); "Debugging" (n. 34 above); Francis Wagner to Richard King et al., 11 March 1958, CBI 6, folder 12.
81. This analysis draws upon Rue Bucher and Anselm Strauss' observation that the relative stature of different specializations within a profession is constantly changing in response to extensions of knowledge; Bucher and Strauss (n. 4 above).
82. On the ambiguous status of early programmers and its relation to job segmentation within the workplace, see Jennifer Light, "When Computers Were Women" (n. 2 above).
83. "Obligations of Share Membership" and "Definition of Share Membership," in Reference Manual for the IBM 704, 1st ed., August 1956, pp. 01.03-01 to 01.03-03 and 03.2-01, CBI 6, folder 3. On loyalty to the corporation, see Layton (n. 4 above).
84. "Obligations of Share Membership" and "Definition of Share Membership," in Reference Manual for the IBM 704, 1st ed., August 1956, pp. 01.03-01 to 01.03-03 and 03.2-01, CBI 6, folder 3. On loyalty to the corporation, see Layton (n. 4 above).
85. Arthur Strang to H. N. Cantrell and Allen Keller, 19 June 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 3; Albert Pitcher to M. J. Rodgers, 25 September 1956; CBI 21, box 1, folder 9; and other documents in these two folders. Although Share's rules of membership, which required member installations to have IBM 704s (and, later, 709s) installed or on order, could themselves have given cause for concern, the principal apprehensions about antitrust lay elsewhere. The earliest arose over the practice of requiring member installations to submit copies of all hardware modification requests (known as "Requests for Price Quotation," or RPQs) they made to IBM. Share responded by making such submissions voluntary. Further concern arose over a proposal for Share to retain legal counsel to determine the appropriate limits of collaboration. Some Share representatives, however, feared that such action would itself create an appearance of impropriety. When a lawyer from Westinghouse suggested that scientific and professional associations were free to collaborate in developing new techniques that were purely technical and scientific in nature, Share representatives seized the opportunity to reject the idea of hiring separate counsel. The group never directly addressed the issue of the legality of coordinating program development work, at least not in its published proceedings. It is not surprising that the question of antitrust action was first raised by two old-line East Coast firms in the electrical industry; both would have had a corporate culture already sensitized to issues of antitrust.
86. T. M. Kerr to Frank Engel, 1 November 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 7; "Share Programs" (n. 20 above); Fletcher Jones, draft letter to nonmembers regarding nonmember distribution, [January 1956], CBI 21, box 1, folder 2.
87. See, for example, H. S. Bright to Frank Wagner, 14 February 1958, AC 323, box 7, folder "Correspondence, 1958-I," and "Meeting to Form Agenda Items . . .," minutes, 20 November 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 7.
88. T. M. Kerr to Frank Engel, 1 November 1956, CBI 21, box 0, folder 7; "Share Membership and What It Entails" (n. 21 above). See also the penciled comments on "Share Meeting Notes," 22 August 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 4.
89. T. M. Kerr to Frank Engel, 1 November 1956, CBI 21, box 0, folder 7; "Share Membership and What It Entails" (n. 21 above). See also the penciled comments on "Share Meeting Notes," 22 August 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 4.
90. Akera, "Calculating a Natural World" (n. 2 above), 437-43.
91. Walter Bauer, "The Informatics Story," 15 November 1962, CBI 6, folder 10. Tensions could lead to the wholesale departure of the central computing staff, as occurred at North American Aviation between 1961 and 1962. See "Engineering Computing History" (n. 6 above) and Bob Patrick, "This is a backbone," n.d., CBI 6, folder 12. See also Akera, "Calculating a Natural World," 457-59.
92. Walter Bauer, "The Informatics Story," 15 November 1962, CBI 6, folder 10. Tensions could lead to the wholesale departure of the central computing staff, as occurred at North American Aviation between 1961 and 1962. See "Engineering Computing History" (n. 6 above) and Bob Patrick, "This is a backbone," n.d., CBI 6, folder 12. See also Akera, "Calculating a Natural World," 457-59.
93. Walter Bauer, "The Informatics Story," 15 November 1962, CBI 6, folder 10. Tensions could lead to the wholesale departure of the central computing staff, as occurred at North American Aviation between 1961 and 1962. See "Engineering Computing History" (n. 6 above) and Bob Patrick, "This is a backbone," n.d., CBI 6, folder 12. See also Akera, "Calculating a Natural World," 457-59.
94. Walter Bauer, "The Informatics Story," 15 November 1962, CBI 6, folder 10. Tensions could lead to the wholesale departure of the central computing staff, as occurred at North American Aviation between 1961 and 1962. See "Engineering Computing History" (n. 6 above) and Bob Patrick, "This is a backbone," n.d., CBI 6, folder 12. See also Akera, "Calculating a Natural World," 457-59.
95. Reference Manual for the IBM 704 (n. 18 above), "Synopses of Proceedings," pp. 10.01-02 to 10.01-04. Fletcher Jones to Charles DeCarlo, 29 August 1955; Paul Armer to Charles DeCarlo, 7 September 1955; and Charles DeCarlo to Fletcher Jones, 12 September 1955, CBI 21, box 1, folder 1.
96. "Programming Library," IBM Research Mews, May 1963, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1956." L. Joanne Edson to J. Hunter White, 16 November 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 7. H. S. Bright to Executive Board of Share, 15 December 1958, CBI 21, box 1, folder 14.
97. "Programming Library," IBM Research Mews, May 1963, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1956." L. Joanne Edson to J. Hunter White, 16 November 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 7. H. S. Bright to Executive Board of Share, 15 December 1958, CBI 21, box 1, folder 14.
98. D. L. Shell to members of Share, 7 January 1957, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1957." "Verbatim Transcript of the 9th Share Meeting," 1 October 1957, CBI 21, box 3, folder 13, p. 47. This arrangement involved neither a contract nor direct subventions from IBM.
99. D. L. Shell to members of Share, 7 January 1957, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1957." "Verbatim Transcript of the 9th Share Meeting," 1 October 1957, CBI 21, box 3, folder 13, p. 47. This arrangement involved neither a contract nor direct subventions from IBM.
100. D. L. Shell to members of Share, 7 January 1957; Frank Beckman, "Minutes of the Meeting on February 21, 1957"; and [Irwin Greenwald to Paul Armer], "709 Meetings," handwritten notes, 1 March 1957, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1957."
101. D. L. Shell to members of Share, 7 January 1957; Frank Beckman, "Minutes of the Meeting on February 21, 1957"; and [Irwin Greenwald to Paul Armer], "709 Meetings," handwritten notes, 1 March 1957, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1957."
102. D. L. Shell to members of Share, 7 January 1957; Frank Beckman, "Minutes of the Meeting on February 21, 1957"; and [Irwin Greenwald to Paul Armer], "709 Meetings," handwritten notes, 1 March 1957, AC 323, box 7, folder "Share Correspondence, 1957."
103. Lewis Ondis, "Share Routines Received Up To April 1, 1956," n.d., CBI 21, box 1, folder 2. "Proposed Share Questionnaire," circa September 1956, and Fletcher Jones to Frank Engel, 21 September 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. "Verbatim Transcript of the 9th Share Meeting," pp. 8-10. Some duplication was inevitable, since many installations chose to maintain independent coding efforts, and some was the result of real differences - the degree of precision provided by a mathematical subroutine, for example - in the aims and applications of each facility. But even these duplications reflect the limits of Share's coordination.
104. Lewis Ondis, "Share Routines Received Up To April 1, 1956," n.d., CBI 21, box 1, folder 2. "Proposed Share Questionnaire," circa September 1956, and Fletcher Jones to Frank Engel, 21 September 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. "Verbatim Transcript of the 9th Share Meeting," pp. 8-10. Some duplication was inevitable, since many installations chose to maintain independent coding efforts, and some was the result of real differences - the degree of precision provided by a mathematical subroutine, for example - in the aims and applications of each facility. But even these duplications reflect the limits of Share's coordination.
105. Lewis Ondis, "Share Routines Received Up To April 1, 1956," n.d., CBI 21, box 1, folder 2. "Proposed Share Questionnaire," circa September 1956, and Fletcher Jones to Frank Engel, 21 September 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 5. "Verbatim Transcript of the 9th Share Meeting," pp. 8-10. Some duplication was inevitable, since many installations chose to maintain independent coding efforts, and some was the result of real differences - the degree of precision provided by a mathematical subroutine, for example - in the aims and applications of each facility. But even these duplications reflect the limits of Share's coordination.
106. "Share Subcommittee Report," 1 October 1956, CBI 21, box 1, folder 6.
107. 709 System Subcommittee to Members of Share, 13 September 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 13. Share 709 System (SOS) Manual, preliminary edition dated July 1958, with sections subsequently revised at various dates and inserted into the original binders, CBI 21, box 3, folders 8 and 9. "Verbatim Transcript of the 9th Share Meeting," 30-32, 120-25. Under the 709 System Committee's
108. 709 System Subcommittee to Members of Share, 13 September 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 13. Share 709 System (SOS) Manual, preliminary edition dated July 1958, with sections subsequently revised at various dates and inserted into the original binders, CBI 21, box 3, folders 8 and 9. "Verbatim Transcript of the 9th Share Meeting," 30-32, 120-25. Under the 709 System Committee's definition, SCAT, the input/output subroutines, and debugging utilities were all considered part of the Share 709 System. SOS, in other words, was more than just an operating system. Such an integrated system was consistent with the systems programmer's view as to who should carry out programming work.
109. Charles Swift, "The MockDonald Multiphase System for the 709," 9 September 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 13. Share 709 System (SOS) Manual, "Introduction to and the Philosophy of Modify and Load." F. V. Wagner to T. W. Alexander, 8 April 1960, CBI 6, folder 22.
110. Charles Swift, "The MockDonald Multiphase System for the 709," 9 September 1957, CBI 21, box 1, folder 13. Share 709 System (SOS) Manual, "Introduction to and the Philosophy of Modify and Load." F. V. Wagner to T. W. Alexander, 8 April 1960, CBI 6, folder 22.
111. This perspective was expressed most clearly in the design of the SOS control program. Owen Mock and his cohort believed that their elaborate multiphase operation could effectively support any mix of programs, including those written in Fortran and other high-level languages.
112. "Share Subcommittee Report." James Fishman to Donn Parker, report submitted by the Share Subcommittee on 709 Fortran Operating System, 17 March 1959, CBI 6, folder 6.
113. "Engineering Computing History" (n. 6 above). F. V. Wagner to T. W. Alexander, 8 April 1960, CBI 6, folder 22.
114. Goldstein (n. 3 above) and Zunz (n. 3 above).
115. The new systems engineering organizations, science advisory groups, and other hybrid organizations described in recent works by Stuart Leslie (n. 2 above) and others were, in many respects, ad hoc arrangements established to accommodate competing interests over how to conduct cold war research.
116. The significance of multiple allegiances is described more formally in sociological accounts of how "People typically participate in a number of social worlds simultaneously"; Clarke (n. 23 above), 132.
117. Share still exists; see the organization's web site at www.share.org. In addition to a software exchange, one of Share's principal roles continued to bethat of providing IBM with feedback about its software and hardware.
118. Paul Armer, joined by others from Share and from the Univac Scientific Exchange, first tried to transform the Association for Computing Machinery's charter to encompass the computer programmer's point of view. Upon failing to change ACM to his satisfaction, Armer went on to help establish the American Federation of Information Processing Societies. See Akera, "Calculating a Natural World" (n. 2 above), 567-602.