Minority Religions and the Context of Violence: A Conflict/Interactionist Perspective

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 103-133

  Richardson, James T ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035629468     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550109609672     Document Type: Review

References (264)

1. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
2. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
3. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
4. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
5. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
6. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
7. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
8. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
9. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
10. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
11. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
12. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
13. For a sampling of this literature see Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Mass Suicide Before Jonestown', Sociological Analysis 46/1 (1986) pp.1-20; Thomas Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.13-29; Jean Rosenfeld, 'The Importance of the Analysis of Religion in Avoiding Violent Outcomes: the Justus Freeman Case', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp. 72-95; James Tabor and Eugene Gallagher, Why Waco? (Berkeley: University of California press 1995; Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995); David Chidester, Salvation and Suicide: An Interpetation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press 1988); Ken Levi (ed.), Violence and Religious Commitment (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1982); Mary Maaga, Hearing the Voices of Jonestown (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1998); Ian Reader, The Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 1996); John Hall, Gone From the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1987); James Lewis (ed.), From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield 1994); Rebecca Moore, A Sympathetic History of Jonestown (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Meilen Press 1985); Robert Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Metropolitan Books 1999).
14. See for example, Thomas Robbins and Susan Palmer (eds.), Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalytic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997); Catherine Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven's Gate (New York: Seven Bridges Press 2000); Catherine Wessinger (ed.), Millennialism, Persecution, & Violence: Historical Cases (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 2000), as well as the classic by Michael Barkun, Disaster and the Millennium (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1986).
15. See for example, Thomas Robbins and Susan Palmer (eds.), Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalytic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997); Catherine Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven's Gate (New York: Seven Bridges Press 2000); Catherine Wessinger (ed.), Millennialism, Persecution, & Violence: Historical Cases (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 2000), as well as the classic by Michael Barkun, Disaster and the Millennium (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1986).
16. See for example, Thomas Robbins and Susan Palmer (eds.), Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalytic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997); Catherine Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven's Gate (New York: Seven Bridges Press 2000); Catherine Wessinger (ed.), Millennialism, Persecution, & Violence: Historical Cases (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 2000), as well as the classic by Michael Barkun, Disaster and the Millennium (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1986).
17. See for example, Thomas Robbins and Susan Palmer (eds.), Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary Apocalytic Movements (New York: Routledge 1997); Catherine Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven's Gate (New York: Seven Bridges Press 2000); Catherine Wessinger (ed.), Millennialism, Persecution, & Violence: Historical Cases (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 2000), as well as the classic by Michael Barkun, Disaster and the Millennium (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1986).
18. On journalistic treatments and the role of the media see James Beckford, Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements (London: Tavistock 1985); Barend van Driel and James Richardson, 'Print Media Coverage of New Religious Movements: A Longitudinal Study, Journal of Communication 38/3 (1988) pp.37-61; James Richardson, 'Manufacturing Consent About Koresh: A Structural Analysis of the Role of the Media in the Waco Tragedy', in Wright (note 1) pp.153-76; James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'Journalistic Attitudes Toward New Religious Movements', Review of Religious Research 39/2 (1997) pp.116-36; James Richardson, 'Journalistic Bias Toward New Religions in Australia', Journal of Contemporary Religion 11/3 (1996) pp.289-302; and for a discussion of how new religions or 'cults' became a social problem see Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Deprogramming, Brainwashing, and the Medicalization of New Religions', Social Problems 29/3 (1982) pp.283-97.
19. On journalistic treatments and the role of the media see James Beckford, Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements (London: Tavistock 1985); Barend van Driel and James Richardson, 'Print Media Coverage of New Religious Movements: A Longitudinal Study, Journal of Communication 38/3 (1988) pp.37-61; James Richardson, 'Manufacturing Consent About Koresh: A Structural Analysis of the Role of the Media in the Waco Tragedy', in Wright (note 1) pp.153-76; James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'Journalistic Attitudes Toward New Religious Movements', Review of Religious Research 39/2 (1997) pp.116-36; James Richardson, 'Journalistic Bias Toward New Religions in Australia', Journal of Contemporary Religion 11/3 (1996) pp.289-302; and for a discussion of how new religions or 'cults' became a social problem see Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Deprogramming, Brainwashing, and the Medicalization of New Religions', Social Problems 29/3 (1982) pp.283-97.
20. On journalistic treatments and the role of the media see James Beckford, Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements (London: Tavistock 1985); Barend van Driel and James Richardson, 'Print Media Coverage of New Religious Movements: A Longitudinal Study, Journal of Communication 38/3 (1988) pp.37-61; James Richardson, 'Manufacturing Consent About Koresh: A Structural Analysis of the Role of the Media in the Waco Tragedy', in Wright (note 1) pp.153-76; James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'Journalistic Attitudes Toward New Religious Movements', Review of Religious Research 39/2 (1997) pp.116-36; James Richardson, 'Journalistic Bias Toward New Religions in Australia', Journal of Contemporary Religion 11/3 (1996) pp.289-302; and for a discussion of how new religions or 'cults' became a social problem see Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Deprogramming, Brainwashing, and the Medicalization of New Religions', Social Problems 29/3 (1982) pp.283-97.
21. On journalistic treatments and the role of the media see James Beckford, Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements (London: Tavistock 1985); Barend van Driel and James Richardson, 'Print Media Coverage of New Religious Movements: A Longitudinal Study, Journal of Communication 38/3 (1988) pp.37-61; James Richardson, 'Manufacturing Consent About Koresh: A Structural Analysis of the Role of the Media in the Waco Tragedy', in Wright (note 1) pp.153-76; James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'Journalistic Attitudes Toward New Religious Movements', Review of Religious Research 39/2 (1997) pp.116-36; James Richardson, 'Journalistic Bias Toward New Religions in Australia', Journal of Contemporary Religion 11/3 (1996) pp.289-302; and for a discussion of how new religions or 'cults' became a social problem see Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Deprogramming, Brainwashing, and the Medicalization of New Religions', Social Problems 29/3 (1982) pp.283-97.
22. On journalistic treatments and the role of the media see James Beckford, Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements (London: Tavistock 1985); Barend van Driel and James Richardson, 'Print Media Coverage of New Religious Movements: A Longitudinal Study, Journal of Communication 38/3 (1988) pp.37-61; James Richardson, 'Manufacturing Consent About Koresh: A Structural Analysis of the Role of the Media in the Waco Tragedy', in Wright (note 1) pp.153-76; James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'Journalistic Attitudes Toward New Religious Movements', Review of Religious Research 39/2 (1997) pp.116-36; James Richardson, 'Journalistic Bias Toward New Religions in Australia', Journal of Contemporary Religion 11/3 (1996) pp.289-302; and for a discussion of how new religions or 'cults' became a social problem see Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Deprogramming, Brainwashing, and the Medicalization of New Religions', Social Problems 29/3 (1982) pp.283-97.
23. On journalistic treatments and the role of the media see James Beckford, Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements (London: Tavistock 1985); Barend van Driel and James Richardson, 'Print Media Coverage of New Religious Movements: A Longitudinal Study, Journal of Communication 38/3 (1988) pp.37-61; James Richardson, 'Manufacturing Consent About Koresh: A Structural Analysis of the Role of the Media in the Waco Tragedy', in Wright (note 1) pp.153-76; James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'Journalistic Attitudes Toward New Religious Movements', Review of Religious Research 39/2 (1997) pp.116-36; James Richardson, 'Journalistic Bias Toward New Religions in Australia', Journal of Contemporary Religion 11/3 (1996) pp.289-302; and for a discussion of how new religions or 'cults' became a social problem see Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Deprogramming, Brainwashing, and the Medicalization of New Religions', Social Problems 29/3 (1982) pp.283-97.
24. See Wessinger, Historical Cases (note 2)and Robbins and Palmer (note 2).
25. See Hugh Graham and Robert Gurr (eds.), Violence in America (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office 1969) and Rebecca Moore, '"American as Cherry Pie": Peoples Temple and Violence in America', in Wessinger, Historical Cases (note 2) pp.121-37.
26. See Hugh Graham and Robert Gurr (eds.), Violence in America (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office 1969) and Rebecca Moore, '"American as Cherry Pie": Peoples Temple and Violence in America', in Wessinger, Historical Cases (note 2) pp.121-37.
27. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
28. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
29. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
30. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
31. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
32. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
33. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
34. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
35. For discussions of therapeutic effects see Marc Galanter, 'The "Relief Effect": A Sociobiological Model for Neurotic Distress and Large Group Therapy', American Journal of Psychiatry 135 (1978) pp.588-91; Brock Kilbourne, 'Equity or Exploitation? The Case of the Unification Church', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986 pp.143-50; Brock Kilbourne, 'Psychotherapeutic Implications of New Religious Affiliation', in Marc Galanter (ed.), Cults and new Religious Movements (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association 1989) pp.127-14; Brock Kilbourne and Richardson, 'Cults Versus Families: A Case of Misattribution of Cause? Marriage and Family Review 4/3 (1981) pp.81-100; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society', American Psychologist 39/3 (1984) pp.237-51; Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Analysis of Healing', Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy 7/1 (1988) pp.20-43; James Richardson, 'Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of Participants in New Religions', in Laurence Brown (ed.), New Perspectives in Psychology of Religion (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press 1985); James Richardson, 'Clinical and Personality Assessments of Participants in New Religions', International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 5/3 (1995) pp. 145-70; John Muffler, John Langrod, James Richardson, Pedro Ruiz, 'Religion', in J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R. Millman, and J. Langrod (eds.), Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1997; and Robbins and Anthony (note 3).
36. This analysis should not be taken to mean that I condone violence by religious groups, or that I am attempting to 'explain it away'. For discussions of this and related issues see Robbins (1997) (note 1); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Interpreting the Interpretive Approach: A Friendly Reply to Thomas Robbins', Nova Religio 1/1 (1998) pp.30-49; and Ian Reader, 'Scholarship, Aum Shinrikyo, and Academic Integrity', Nova Religio 3/2 pp.368-82. Taking the perspective on violence proposed herein will, I think, yield better understanding for those who want to see less such violence, a large group in which I include myself.
37. This analysis should not be taken to mean that I condone violence by religious groups, or that I am attempting to 'explain it away'. For discussions of this and related issues see Robbins (1997) (note 1); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Interpreting the Interpretive Approach: A Friendly Reply to Thomas Robbins', Nova Religio 1/1 (1998) pp.30-49; and Ian Reader, 'Scholarship, Aum Shinrikyo, and Academic Integrity', Nova Religio 3/2 pp.368-82. Taking the perspective on violence proposed herein will, I think, yield better understanding for those who want to see less such violence, a large group in which I include myself.
38. See Steven Tipton, Getting Saved from the Sixties (Berkeley: University of California Press 1982); James Richardson, Brock Kilbourne, and Barend van Driel, 'Alternative Religions and Economic Individualism', in Monty Lynn and David Moberg (eds.), Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989) pp.33-56.
39. See Steven Tipton, Getting Saved from the Sixties (Berkeley: University of California Press 1982); James Richardson, Brock Kilbourne, and Barend van Driel, 'Alternative Religions and Economic Individualism', in Monty Lynn and David Moberg (eds.), Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989) pp.33-56.
40. See discussion of this conflict in Kilbourne and Richardson (1984) (note 6).
41. Sandra Ball-Rokeach, 'Normative and Deviant Violence from A Conflict Perspective', Social Problems 28/1 (1980) pp.45-62, 46.
42. Ralf Dahrendorf,Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford: Stanford University Press 1959).
43. On labeling see Howard Becker, The Outsiders (New York: Free Press 1973); Eric Goode, 'On Behalf of Labeling Theory', Social Problems 22 (1975) pp.570-83 , and on accounts see Marvin Scott and Stanford Lyman, 'Accounts', American Sociological Review 33 (1975) pp.942-5; James Richardson, Jan van der Lans, and Frans Derks, 'Leaving and Labeling: Voluntary and Coerced Disaffiliation from Religious Social Movements', in Kurt Lang and Gladys Lang (eds.), Research in Social Movements, Conflicts, and Change (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1986); and James Beckford, 'Accounting for Conversion', British Journal for Sociology 29 (1978) pp.249-62.
44. On labeling see Howard Becker, The Outsiders (New York: Free Press 1973); Eric Goode, 'On Behalf of Labeling Theory', Social Problems 22 (1975) pp.570-83 , and on accounts see Marvin Scott and Stanford Lyman, 'Accounts', American Sociological Review 33 (1975) pp.942-5; James Richardson, Jan van der Lans, and Frans Derks, 'Leaving and Labeling: Voluntary and Coerced Disaffiliation from Religious Social Movements', in Kurt Lang and Gladys Lang (eds.), Research in Social Movements, Conflicts, and Change (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1986); and James Beckford, 'Accounting for Conversion', British Journal for Sociology 29 (1978) pp.249-62.
45. On labeling see Howard Becker, The Outsiders (New York: Free Press 1973); Eric Goode, 'On Behalf of Labeling Theory', Social Problems 22 (1975) pp.570-83 , and on accounts see Marvin Scott and Stanford Lyman, 'Accounts', American Sociological Review 33 (1975) pp.942-5; James Richardson, Jan van der Lans, and Frans Derks, 'Leaving and Labeling: Voluntary and Coerced Disaffiliation from Religious Social Movements', in Kurt Lang and Gladys Lang (eds.), Research in Social Movements, Conflicts, and Change (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1986); and James Beckford, 'Accounting for Conversion', British Journal for Sociology 29 (1978) pp.249-62.
46. On labeling see Howard Becker, The Outsiders (New York: Free Press 1973); Eric Goode, 'On Behalf of Labeling Theory', Social Problems 22 (1975) pp.570-83 , and on accounts see Marvin Scott and Stanford Lyman, 'Accounts', American Sociological Review 33 (1975) pp.942-5; James Richardson, Jan van der Lans, and Frans Derks, 'Leaving and Labeling: Voluntary and Coerced Disaffiliation from Religious Social Movements', in Kurt Lang and Gladys Lang (eds.), Research in Social Movements, Conflicts, and Change (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1986); and James Beckford, 'Accounting for Conversion', British Journal for Sociology 29 (1978) pp.249-62.
47. On labeling see Howard Becker, The Outsiders (New York: Free Press 1973); Eric Goode, 'On Behalf of Labeling Theory', Social Problems 22 (1975) pp.570-83 , and on accounts see Marvin Scott and Stanford Lyman, 'Accounts', American Sociological Review 33 (1975) pp.942-5; James Richardson, Jan van der Lans, and Frans Derks, 'Leaving and Labeling: Voluntary and Coerced Disaffiliation from Religious Social Movements', in Kurt Lang and Gladys Lang (eds.), Research in Social Movements, Conflicts, and Change (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1986); and James Beckford, 'Accounting for Conversion', British Journal for Sociology 29 (1978) pp.249-62.
48. On claimsmaking see Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse, Constructing Social Problems (Menlo Park, Ca: Cummings 1977) and on attributions see R.C. Prus, 'Resisting Designations: An Extension of Attribution Theory into a Negotiated Context', Sociological Inquiry 46/2 (1975) pp.127-34; Harold Kelley and J.L. Michela, 'Attribution Theory and Research', Annual Review of Psychology 31 (1980) pp.457-501.
49. On claimsmaking see Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse, Constructing Social Problems (Menlo Park, Ca: Cummings 1977) and on attributions see R.C. Prus, 'Resisting Designations: An Extension of Attribution Theory into a Negotiated Context', Sociological Inquiry 46/2 (1975) pp.127-34; Harold Kelley and J.L. Michela, 'Attribution Theory and Research', Annual Review of Psychology 31 (1980) pp.457-501.
50. On claimsmaking see Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse, Constructing Social Problems (Menlo Park, Ca: Cummings 1977) and on attributions see R.C. Prus, 'Resisting Designations: An Extension of Attribution Theory into a Negotiated Context', Sociological Inquiry 46/2 (1975) pp.127-34; Harold Kelley and J.L. Michela, 'Attribution Theory and Research', Annual Review of Psychology 31 (1980) pp.457-501.
51. See discussion of ideas as social weapons against new religions in Thomas Robbins, Dick Anthony, and James McCarthy, 'Legitimating Repression', in David Bromley and James Richardson (eds.), The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy (New York: Edwin Mellen 1983).
52. See Gary Marx, 'External Efforts to Damage or Facilitate Social Movements: Some Patterns, Explanations, Outcomes, and Complications', in Mayer Zald and James McCarthy (eds.), The Dynamics of Social Movements (Cambridge, Mass: Winthrop Publishers 1979) pp.94-125. For direct application to the area of new religions see Massimo Introvigne, 'Moral Panics and Anti-Cult Terrorism in Western Europe', Terrorism and Political Violence 12/1 (2000) pp.47-59.
53. See Gary Marx, 'External Efforts to Damage or Facilitate Social Movements: Some Patterns, Explanations, Outcomes, and Complications', in Mayer Zald and James McCarthy (eds.), The Dynamics of Social Movements (Cambridge, Mass: Winthrop Publishers 1979) pp.94-125. For direct application to the area of new religions see Massimo Introvigne, 'Moral Panics and Anti-Cult Terrorism in Western Europe', Terrorism and Political Violence 12/1 (2000) pp.47-59.
54. See R.B. Cairn, Social Development: The Origins and Plasticity of Interchanges (San Francisco: Freeman 1979).
55. See David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review 78/3 (1984) pp.658-77; David C. Rapoport, 'Messianic Sanctions for Terror', Comparative Politics 20/2 (1988) pp.195-213, Ian Reader (note 1), Catherine Wessinger, (note 2), and Lifton (note 1).
56. See David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review 78/3 (1984) pp.658-77; David C. Rapoport, 'Messianic Sanctions for Terror', Comparative Politics 20/2 (1988) pp.195-213, Ian Reader (note 1), Catherine Wessinger, (note 2), and Lifton (note 1).
57. See Wright (note 1) and Tabor and Gallagher (note 1) on what happened at Waco.
58. Roy Wallis, The Road to Total Freedom (New York: Columbia University Press 1977).
59. See the fine discussion of such interactions in Michael Barkun, 'Millennial Violence in Contemporary America', in Catherine Wessinger, Historical Cases (note 2) pp.352-63, and Michael Barkun, 'Millenarianism and Violence: The Case of the Christian Identity Movement', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.247-60.
60. See the fine discussion of such interactions in Michael Barkun, 'Millennial Violence in Contemporary America', in Catherine Wessinger, Historical Cases (note 2) pp.352-63, and Michael Barkun, 'Millenarianism and Violence: The Case of the Christian Identity Movement', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.247-60.
61. Paul Secord and Carl Backman, Social Psychology (New York: McGraw Hill 1974).
62. See Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) p.275.
63. An earlier version of this paper also contained a section focusing on so-called 'brainwashing' claims as a form of violence against newer religions in that such claims have been used to justify violence against such groups and their individual members (such as through deprogrammings). See Dick Anthony,'Religious Movements Litigation: Evaluating Key Testimony', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Books 1990) pp.295-344; Dick Anthony, 'Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.421-56; Eileen Barker, The Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? (New York: Basil Blackwell 1984); James Richardson and Brock Kilbourne, 'Classical and Contemporary Applications of Brainwashing Models', in David Bromley and James Richardson (eds.) The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy (1983); James Richardson, 'Cult/Brainwashing Cases and the Freedom of Religion', Journal of Church and State 33/1(1991) pp.55-74; and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Critique of "Brainwashing" Claims About Recruitment to New Religions', in David Bromley and Jeffrey Hadden (eds.), The Handbook on Cults and Sects in America (Greenwich,CT: JAI Press 1993) pp.75-97 for an assessment of such attacks.
64. An earlier version of this paper also contained a section focusing on so-called 'brainwashing' claims as a form of violence against newer religions in that such claims have been used to justify violence against such groups and their individual members (such as through deprogrammings). See Dick Anthony,'Religious Movements Litigation: Evaluating Key Testimony', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Books 1990) pp.295-344; Dick Anthony, 'Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.421-56; Eileen Barker, The Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? (New York: Basil Blackwell 1984); James Richardson and Brock Kilbourne, 'Classical and Contemporary Applications of Brainwashing Models', in David Bromley and James Richardson (eds.) The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy (1983); James Richardson, 'Cult/Brainwashing Cases and the Freedom of Religion', Journal of Church and State 33/1(1991) pp.55-74; and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Critique of "Brainwashing" Claims About Recruitment to New Religions', in David Bromley and Jeffrey Hadden (eds.), The Handbook on Cults and Sects in America (Greenwich,CT: JAI Press 1993) pp.75-97 for an assessment of such attacks.
65. An earlier version of this paper also contained a section focusing on so-called 'brainwashing' claims as a form of violence against newer religions in that such claims have been used to justify violence against such groups and their individual members (such as through deprogrammings). See Dick Anthony,'Religious Movements Litigation: Evaluating Key Testimony', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Books 1990) pp.295-344; Dick Anthony, 'Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.421-56; Eileen Barker, The Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? (New York: Basil Blackwell 1984); James Richardson and Brock Kilbourne, 'Classical and Contemporary Applications of Brainwashing Models', in David Bromley and James Richardson (eds.) The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy (1983); James Richardson, 'Cult/Brainwashing Cases and the Freedom of Religion', Journal of Church and State 33/1(1991) pp.55-74; and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Critique of "Brainwashing" Claims About Recruitment to New Religions', in David Bromley and Jeffrey Hadden (eds.), The Handbook on Cults and Sects in America (Greenwich,CT: JAI Press 1993) pp.75-97 for an assessment of such attacks.
66. An earlier version of this paper also contained a section focusing on so-called 'brainwashing' claims as a form of violence against newer religions in that such claims have been used to justify violence against such groups and their individual members (such as through deprogrammings). See Dick Anthony,'Religious Movements Litigation: Evaluating Key Testimony', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Books 1990) pp.295-344; Dick Anthony, 'Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.421-56; Eileen Barker, The Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? (New York: Basil Blackwell 1984); James Richardson and Brock Kilbourne, 'Classical and Contemporary Applications of Brainwashing Models', in David Bromley and James Richardson (eds.) The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy (1983); James Richardson, 'Cult/Brainwashing Cases and the Freedom of Religion', Journal of Church and State 33/1(1991) pp.55-74; and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Critique of "Brainwashing" Claims About Recruitment to New Religions', in David Bromley and Jeffrey Hadden (eds.), The Handbook on Cults and Sects in America (Greenwich,CT: JAI Press 1993) pp.75-97 for an assessment of such attacks.
67. An earlier version of this paper also contained a section focusing on so-called 'brainwashing' claims as a form of violence against newer religions in that such claims have been used to justify violence against such groups and their individual members (such as through deprogrammings). See Dick Anthony,'Religious Movements Litigation: Evaluating Key Testimony', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Books 1990) pp.295-344; Dick Anthony, 'Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.421-56; Eileen Barker, The Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? (New York: Basil Blackwell 1984); James Richardson and Brock Kilbourne, 'Classical and Contemporary Applications of Brainwashing Models', in David Bromley and James Richardson (eds.) The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy (1983); James Richardson, 'Cult/Brainwashing Cases and the Freedom of Religion', Journal of Church and State 33/1(1991) pp.55-74; and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Critique of "Brainwashing" Claims About Recruitment to New Religions', in David Bromley and Jeffrey Hadden (eds.), The Handbook on Cults and Sects in America (Greenwich,CT: JAI Press 1993) pp.75-97 for an assessment of such attacks.
68. An earlier version of this paper also contained a section focusing on so-called 'brainwashing' claims as a form of violence against newer religions in that such claims have been used to justify violence against such groups and their individual members (such as through deprogrammings). See Dick Anthony,'Religious Movements Litigation: Evaluating Key Testimony', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Books 1990) pp.295-344; Dick Anthony, 'Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.421-56; Eileen Barker, The Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? (New York: Basil Blackwell 1984); James Richardson and Brock Kilbourne, 'Classical and Contemporary Applications of Brainwashing Models', in David Bromley and James Richardson (eds.) The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy (1983); James Richardson, 'Cult/Brainwashing Cases and the Freedom of Religion', Journal of Church and State 33/1(1991) pp.55-74; and James Richardson, 'A Social Psychological Critique of "Brainwashing" Claims About Recruitment to New Religions', in David Bromley and Jeffrey Hadden (eds.), The Handbook on Cults and Sects in America (Greenwich,CT: JAI Press 1993) pp.75-97 for an assessment of such attacks.
69. A collective view is not a usual way to conceptualize violence. Typical views of violence often treat violence as an individual and even psychologized concept. Even more sophisticated social psychological treatments such as William Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, III: Dorsey Press 1975), Cairn (note 16), Ball-Rokeach (note 10) that focus on the context of violence and its basic relational character focus mainly on acts of individual violence. Terms like 'menticide', homicide, and suicide, all individualistic terms, have their collective level analogues. 'Orgacide' might refer to the destruction of an organization (see Christine King, The Nazi State and the New Religions (New York: Edwin Mellen 1982) and Peter Matheson (ed.), The Third Reich and the Christian Churches (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 1981) for examples from the Third Reich's efforts to obliterate some minority religions). Another collective level term is genocide, which sometimes involves attempts to destroy a religious community.
70. A collective view is not a usual way to conceptualize violence. Typical views of violence often treat violence as an individual and even psychologized concept. Even more sophisticated social psychological treatments such as William Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, III: Dorsey Press 1975), Cairn (note 16), Ball-Rokeach (note 10) that focus on the context of violence and its basic relational character focus mainly on acts of individual violence. Terms like 'menticide', homicide, and suicide, all individualistic terms, have their collective level analogues. 'Orgacide' might refer to the destruction of an organization (see Christine King, The Nazi State and the New Religions (New York: Edwin Mellen 1982) and Peter Matheson (ed.), The Third Reich and the Christian Churches (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 1981) for examples from the Third Reich's efforts to obliterate some minority religions). Another collective level term is genocide, which sometimes involves attempts to destroy a religious community.
71. A collective view is not a usual way to conceptualize violence. Typical views of violence often treat violence as an individual and even psychologized concept. Even more sophisticated social psychological treatments such as William Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, III: Dorsey Press 1975), Cairn (note 16), Ball-Rokeach (note 10) that focus on the context of violence and its basic relational character focus mainly on acts of individual violence. Terms like 'menticide', homicide, and suicide, all individualistic terms, have their collective level analogues. 'Orgacide' might refer to the destruction of an organization (see Christine King, The Nazi State and the New Religions (New York: Edwin Mellen 1982) and Peter Matheson (ed.), The Third Reich and the Christian Churches (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 1981) for examples from the Third Reich's efforts to obliterate some minority religions). Another collective level term is genocide, which sometimes involves attempts to destroy a religious community.
72. See Gordon Melton, 'Violence and the Cults', Nebraska Humanist 8 (1985) pp.51-60; James Richardson, 'Peoples Temple and Jonestown: A Corrective Comparison and Critique', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 19/3 (1980) pp.239-55.
73. See Gordon Melton, 'Violence and the Cults', Nebraska Humanist 8 (1985) pp.51-60; James Richardson, 'Peoples Temple and Jonestown: A Corrective Comparison and Critique', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 19/3 (1980) pp.239-55.
74. See Anson Shupe and David Bromley, 'Shaping the Public Response to Jonestown: The Peoples Temple and the Anti-Cult Movement', in Ken Levi (note 1) pp.105-32.
75. See Tabor and Gallagher (note 1), Wright (note 1),Wessinger (note 2), and the provocative paper by Stuart Wright, 'Anatomy of a Government Massacre: Abuses of Hostage-Barricade Protocols During the Waco Standoff', Terrorism and Political Violence 11/2 (1999) pp.39-68.
76. See Robert Balch, 'The Evolution of a New Age Cult: From Total Overcomers Anonymous to Death at Heaven's Gate', in William Zeller and Marc Petrowsky (eds.), Sects, Cults, & Spiritual Communities (Westport, CT: Praeger 1998) pp.1-26; Wessinger (note 2); Winston Davis, 'Heaven's Gate: A Study of Religious Obedience', Nova Religio 3/2 (2000) pp.241-67; and Hugh Urban, 'The Devil at Heaven's Gate: Rethinking the Study of Religion in Cyber-Space', Nova Religio 3/2 (2000) pp.268-302.
77. See Robert Balch, 'The Evolution of a New Age Cult: From Total Overcomers Anonymous to Death at Heaven's Gate', in William Zeller and Marc Petrowsky (eds.), Sects, Cults, & Spiritual Communities (Westport, CT: Praeger 1998) pp.1-26; Wessinger (note 2); Winston Davis, 'Heaven's Gate: A Study of Religious Obedience', Nova Religio 3/2 (2000) pp.241-67; and Hugh Urban, 'The Devil at Heaven's Gate: Rethinking the Study of Religion in Cyber-Space', Nova Religio 3/2 (2000) pp.268-302.
78. See Robert Balch, 'The Evolution of a New Age Cult: From Total Overcomers Anonymous to Death at Heaven's Gate', in William Zeller and Marc Petrowsky (eds.), Sects, Cults, & Spiritual Communities (Westport, CT: Praeger 1998) pp.1-26; Wessinger (note 2); Winston Davis, 'Heaven's Gate: A Study of Religious Obedience', Nova Religio 3/2 (2000) pp.241-67; and Hugh Urban, 'The Devil at Heaven's Gate: Rethinking the Study of Religion in Cyber-Space', Nova Religio 3/2 (2000) pp.268-302.
79. See Ian Reader (note 1), Lifton (note 1), Wessinger (note 2), and David Rapoport, 'Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse', National Security Studies Quarterly 5/3 (1999) pp.49-67.
80. See John Hall and Philip Shuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.285-311; Jean-Francois Mayer, '"Our Terrestrial Journey is Coming to and End": The Last Voyage of the Solar Temple', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp. 172-96; and Jean Rosenfeld, 'Response to Mayer's "Our Terrestrial Journey is Coming to and End'", Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.197-207;
81. See John Hall and Philip Shuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.285-311; Jean-Francois Mayer, '"Our Terrestrial Journey is Coming to and End": The Last Voyage of the Solar Temple', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp. 172-96; and Jean Rosenfeld, 'Response to Mayer's "Our Terrestrial Journey is Coming to and End'", Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.197-207;
82. See John Hall and Philip Shuyler, 'The Mystical Apocalypse of the Solar Temple', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.285-311; Jean-Francois Mayer, '"Our Terrestrial Journey is Coming to and End": The Last Voyage of the Solar Temple', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp. 172-96; and Jean Rosenfeld, 'Response to Mayer's "Our Terrestrial Journey is Coming to and End'", Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.197-207;
83. and Massimo Introvigne, 'The Magic of Death: The Suicides of the Solar Temple', in Wessinger, Historical Cases (note 2) pp.138-57.
84. For the most up to date information on this recent tragedy see the CESNUR website at www.cesnur.org.
85. Other, more overtly political events, such as the Oklahoma City bombing have also contributed to how the general public feels about the relationship between violence and religion. Since the Oklahoma City tragic event was apparently motivated in part by the Waco episode, there is a religious nexus in the minds of many. Also, nonviolent events such as the 81-day Freeman standoff in Montana that eventually ended without bloodshed was in the news for months, as America collectively held its breath to see if this situation would also erupt in violence. See Jean Rosenfeld, (note 1) and Wessinger (note 2) for convincing analyses supporting the idea that the ideology of the Freeman was religious at base. Also see James Aho, 'The Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian Patriotism (Seattle: University of Washington Press 1990) for a convincing analysis that patriot movements are at base religious.
86. See Detroit News, (January 7, 1979).
87. See Jerry Carroll and Bernard Bauer, 'Suicide Training in the Moon Cult', New West (1979) pp.62-3. Such accusations were, however, vehemently denied by the church.
88. See Senator Mervin Dymally, 'Impact of Cults on Today's Youth', Hearing Report of California Senate Select Committee on Children and Youth (August 24, 1974).
89. See stories in Chicago Tribune, (June 15, 1978); The Observer, (October 8, 1978), and The Sunday Times, (November 6, 1977).
90. See stories in Chicago Tribune, (June 15, 1978); The Observer, (October 8, 1978), and The Sunday Times, (November 6, 1977).
91. See stories in Chicago Tribune, (June 15, 1978); The Observer, (October 8, 1978), and The Sunday Times, (November 6, 1977).
92. See James Richardson, 'Minority Religions ("Cults") and the Law: Comparisons of the United States, Europe, and Australia', University of Queensland Law Review 18/2 (1995) pp.183-207.
93. See John Huber and Lindset Gruson, Monkey on a Stick: Murder, Madness, and the Hare Krishna (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1988).
94. See stories in The New York Times (April 9, 1973), and The Daily Telegraph (March 15, 1976).
95. See stories in The New York Times (April 9, 1973), and The Daily Telegraph (March 15, 1976).
96. See Richard Ofshe, 'The Social Development of the Synanon Cult: The Managerial Strategy of Organizational Transformation', Sociological Analysis 41/2 (1980) pp.109-27, and R.S. Anson, 'The Synanon Horrors', New Times (Nov. 1978) pp.28-50.
97. See Richard Ofshe, 'The Social Development of the Synanon Cult: The Managerial Strategy of Organizational Transformation', Sociological Analysis 41/2 (1980) pp.109-27, and R.S. Anson, 'The Synanon Horrors', New Times (Nov. 1978) pp.28-50.
98. See Omar Garrison, Playing Dirty: The Secret War Against Beliefs (Los Angeles: Ralston-Pilot 1980) and Wallis (note 19).
99. See James Lewis and Gordon Melton (eds.), Church Universal and Triumphant in Scholarly Perspective (Stanford, CA: Center for Academic Publications 1994).
100. Burke Rochford, 'Child Abuse in the Hare Krishna Movement: 1971-1986', ISKCON Communications Journal 6/1 (1998) pp.43-69.
101. On The Family see James Richardson, 'Social Control of New Religions; From "Brainwashing" Claims to Child Sex Abuse Accusations', in Susan Palmer and Charlotte Hardman (eds.), Children in New Religions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press 1999). On the Island Pond episode see Susan Palmer, 'Frontiers and Families: The Children of island Pond', in Palmer and Hardman, ibid., and Jean Swantko, 'The Twelve Tribes Communities, the Anti-Cult Movement, and the Government's Response', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.341-64.
102. On The Family see James Richardson, 'Social Control of New Religions; From "Brainwashing" Claims to Child Sex Abuse Accusations', in Susan Palmer and Charlotte Hardman (eds.), Children in New Religions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press 1999). On the Island Pond episode see Susan Palmer, 'Frontiers and Families: The Children of island Pond', in Palmer and Hardman, ibid., and Jean Swantko, 'The Twelve Tribes Communities, the Anti-Cult Movement, and the Government's Response', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.341-64.
103. On The Family see James Richardson, 'Social Control of New Religions; From "Brainwashing" Claims to Child Sex Abuse Accusations', in Susan Palmer and Charlotte Hardman (eds.), Children in New Religions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press 1999). On the Island Pond episode see Susan Palmer, 'Frontiers and Families: The Children of island Pond', in Palmer and Hardman, ibid., and Jean Swantko, 'The Twelve Tribes Communities, the Anti-Cult Movement, and the Government's Response', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.341-64.
104. On The Family see James Richardson, 'Social Control of New Religions; From "Brainwashing" Claims to Child Sex Abuse Accusations', in Susan Palmer and Charlotte Hardman (eds.), Children in New Religions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press 1999). On the Island Pond episode see Susan Palmer, 'Frontiers and Families: The Children of island Pond', in Palmer and Hardman, ibid., and Jean Swantko, 'The Twelve Tribes Communities, the Anti-Cult Movement, and the Government's Response', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.341-64.
105. See John Rothchild and Susan Wolf, Children of the Counter Culture (Garden City, NY: Doubleday 1976); H.J. Wallenstein, 'Final Report on the Activities of the Children of God', New York State: Charity Frauds Division 1974); Dymally (note 35); M.J. Gaines, M.A. Wilson, K.J. Redican and C.R. Baffi, 'The Effects of Cult Membership on the Health Status of Adults and Children', Update 8/3 pp.9-17. But also see the entire volume by Palmer and Hardman (note 44) for another perspective.
106. See John Rothchild and Susan Wolf, Children of the Counter Culture (Garden City, NY: Doubleday 1976); H.J. Wallenstein, 'Final Report on the Activities of the Children of God', New York State: Charity Frauds Division 1974); Dymally (note 35); M.J. Gaines, M.A. Wilson, K.J. Redican and C.R. Baffi, 'The Effects of Cult Membership on the Health Status of Adults and Children', Update 8/3 pp.9-17. But also see the entire volume by Palmer and Hardman (note 44) for another perspective.
107. See John Rothchild and Susan Wolf, Children of the Counter Culture (Garden City, NY: Doubleday 1976); H.J. Wallenstein, 'Final Report on the Activities of the Children of God', New York State: Charity Frauds Division 1974); Dymally (note 35); M.J. Gaines, M.A. Wilson, K.J. Redican and C.R. Baffi, 'The Effects of Cult Membership on the Health Status of Adults and Children', Update 8/3 pp.9-17. But also see the entire volume by Palmer and Hardman (note 44) for another perspective.
108. For discussion of the role of accusations of child abuse in social control actions at Waco see Christopher Ellison and John Bartkowski, '"Babies Were Being Beaten": Exploring Child Abuse Accusations at Ranch Apocalypse', in Wright (note 1), pp.11-149, and James Richardson (1995) (note 3). Recent research has shown that most of these claims of child abuse of various kinds in newer religious groups were not founded in fact, but the claims have persisted nonetheless. See William Smith, 'The Impact of Communal Living on Children in the 1980s', SYZYGY: Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture 3/1 pp.51-60; Lawrence Lilliston and Gary Shepherd, 'Psychological Assessment of Children in The Family', in James Lewis and Gordon Melton (eds.), Sex, Sin, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God (Stanford, CA: Center for Academic Publications 1994) pp.47-56; Gary Shepherd and Lawrence Lilliston, 'Field Observations of Young People's Experience and Role in The Family', in Lewis and Melton ibid pp.57-70; Palmer and Hardman (note 44); and Richardson (note 44).
109. For discussion of the role of accusations of child abuse in social control actions at Waco see Christopher Ellison and John Bartkowski, '"Babies Were Being Beaten": Exploring Child Abuse Accusations at Ranch Apocalypse', in Wright (note 1), pp.11-149, and James Richardson (1995) (note 3). Recent research has shown that most of these claims of child abuse of various kinds in newer religious groups were not founded in fact, but the claims have persisted nonetheless. See William Smith, 'The Impact of Communal Living on Children in the 1980s', SYZYGY: Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture 3/1 pp.51-60; Lawrence Lilliston and Gary Shepherd, 'Psychological Assessment of Children in The Family', in James Lewis and Gordon Melton (eds.), Sex, Sin, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God (Stanford, CA: Center for Academic Publications 1994) pp.47-56; Gary Shepherd and Lawrence Lilliston, 'Field Observations of Young People's Experience and Role in The Family', in Lewis and Melton ibid pp.57-70; Palmer and Hardman (note 44); and Richardson (note 44).
110. For discussion of the role of accusations of child abuse in social control actions at Waco see Christopher Ellison and John Bartkowski, '"Babies Were Being Beaten": Exploring Child Abuse Accusations at Ranch Apocalypse', in Wright (note 1), pp.11-149, and James Richardson (1995) (note 3). Recent research has shown that most of these claims of child abuse of various kinds in newer religious groups were not founded in fact, but the claims have persisted nonetheless. See William Smith, 'The Impact of Communal Living on Children in the 1980s', SYZYGY: Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture 3/1 pp.51-60; Lawrence Lilliston and Gary Shepherd, 'Psychological Assessment of Children in The Family', in James Lewis and Gordon Melton (eds.), Sex, Sin, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God (Stanford, CA: Center for Academic Publications 1994) pp.47-56; Gary Shepherd and Lawrence Lilliston, 'Field Observations of Young People's Experience and Role in The Family', in Lewis and Melton ibid pp.57-70; Palmer and Hardman (note 44); and Richardson (note 44).
111. For discussion of the role of accusations of child abuse in social control actions at Waco see Christopher Ellison and John Bartkowski, '"Babies Were Being Beaten": Exploring Child Abuse Accusations at Ranch Apocalypse', in Wright (note 1), pp.11-149, and James Richardson (1995) (note 3). Recent research has shown that most of these claims of child abuse of various kinds in newer religious groups were not founded in fact, but the claims have persisted nonetheless. See William Smith, 'The Impact of Communal Living on Children in the 1980s', SYZYGY: Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture 3/1 pp.51-60; Lawrence Lilliston and Gary Shepherd, 'Psychological Assessment of Children in The Family', in James Lewis and Gordon Melton (eds.), Sex, Sin, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God (Stanford, CA: Center for Academic Publications 1994) pp.47-56; Gary Shepherd and Lawrence Lilliston, 'Field Observations of Young People's Experience and Role in The Family', in Lewis and Melton ibid pp.57-70; Palmer and Hardman (note 44); and Richardson (note 44).
112. See Beckford (note 3) on 'negative summary events' and David Bromley, Anson Shupe, and J.C. Ventimiglia, 'Atrocity Tales, the Unification Church, and the Social Construction of Evil', Journal of Communication 29/3 (1979) pp.42-53.
113. See Rapoport, 1984 (note 17).
114. See Grant Underwood, Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: The Mormons', in Wessinger, Historical Cases (note 2) pp.43-61.
115. See Levi (note 1) pp.3-4 and Barkun, 'Millennial Violence in Contemporary America' (note 20).
116. See Robert Ellwood, One Way: The Jesus Movement and Its Meaning (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 1972) and James Richardson, Mary Stewart, and Robert Simmonds, Organized Miracles (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1979).
117. See Robert Ellwood, One Way: The Jesus Movement and Its Meaning (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 1972) and James Richardson, Mary Stewart, and Robert Simmonds, Organized Miracles (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1979).
118. See Stillson Judah, Hare Krishna and the Counter Culture (New York: John Wiley 1974) and Ted Nordquist, Ananda Cooperative Village: A Study of the Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes of a New Age Community (Uppsala: Religionshistoriska Institutionen 1978).
119. See Stillson Judah, Hare Krishna and the Counter Culture (New York: John Wiley 1974) and Ted Nordquist, Ananda Cooperative Village: A Study of the Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes of a New Age Community (Uppsala: Religionshistoriska Institutionen 1978).
120. See Levi (note 1) pp.10-20; Wessinger (note 2); Barkun (note 20); Robbins and Anthony, 'Sects and Violence: Factors Enhancing the Volatility on Marginal Religious Movements', in Stuart Wright (note 1) pp.236-59; and Lorne Dawson, Comprehending Cults (New York: Oxford University Press 1998) pp.128-57 for insightful discussions.
121. See Levi (note 1) pp.10-20; Wessinger (note 2); Barkun (note 20); Robbins and Anthony, 'Sects and Violence: Factors Enhancing the Volatility on Marginal Religious Movements', in Stuart Wright (note 1) pp.236-59; and Lorne Dawson, Comprehending Cults (New York: Oxford University Press 1998) pp.128-57 for insightful discussions.
122. See Ball-Rokeach (note 10) and Kilbourne and Richardson (1984) (note 6).
123. See D.C. Bock and N.C. Warren, 'Religious Belief as a Factor in Obedience to Destructive Commands', in Newton Malony (ed.), Current Perspectives in the Psychology of Religion (Grand rapids, MI: Eerdmans 1977) pp.191-8; J.M. Starr, 'Religious Preference, Religiosity and Opposition to War', Sociological Analysis 36 (1973) pp.323-34. Also see Rapoport (note 17), Aho (note 32), and Wessinger (note 2).
124. See D.C. Bock and N.C. Warren, 'Religious Belief as a Factor in Obedience to Destructive Commands', in Newton Malony (ed.), Current Perspectives in the Psychology of Religion (Grand rapids, MI: Eerdmans 1977) pp.191-8; J.M. Starr, 'Religious Preference, Religiosity and Opposition to War', Sociological Analysis 36 (1973) pp.323-34. Also see Rapoport (note 17), Aho (note 32), and Wessinger (note 2).
125. See Wessinger's discussion of the Aum Shinrikyo in How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) pp.120-57, as well as Reader (note 1) and Lifton (note 1).
126. See John Hall, 'Public Narratives and the Apocalyptic Sect: From Jonestown to Mt Carmel', in Wright (note 1) pp.205-35 for a discussion of the importance of the idea derived from the Peoples Temple tragedy that minority religious groups are prone to commit suicide, and how that notion may have influenced the actions of law enforcement in the Waco tragedy.
127. See Rebecca Moore (note 5) pp.123-6, 132-5.
128. See Richardson (note 25).
129. Moore (note 5).
130. See Graham and Gurr (note 5).
131. See Maaga's thoughtful discussion of the culpability of other Peoples Temple leaders in the tragedy that developed at Jonestown (note 1).
132. See Barkun (note 20).
133. Huey Newton, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Harcourt brace Javanovich 1973). See Hall (note 1), Chidester (note 1), and Richardson (note 25) for discussions of the implications of this teaching of Jones.
134. Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) pp.30-55.
135. Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press 1963).
136. Wessinger (note 2).
137. See Moore (note 1) and Moore (note 5) pp.126-32.
138. See James Davies, 'Towards a Theory of Social Revolution', American Sociological Review 27 (1962) pp.5-19, and D.E. Morrison, 'Some Notes Toward a Theory of Relative Deprivation, Social Movements, and Social Change', American Behavioural Scientist 14 (1971) pp.675-90.
139. See James Davies, 'Towards a Theory of Social Revolution', American Sociological Review 27 (1962) pp.5-19, and D.E. Morrison, 'Some Notes Toward a Theory of Relative Deprivation, Social Movements, and Social Change', American Behavioural Scientist 14 (1971) pp.675-90.
140. However, many of the several hundred children and elderly who were members of Peoples Temple did not commit suicide, but were murdered 'for the cause' and on behalf of 'revolutionary suicide'. Such cases go far beyond what Durkheim meant by altruistic suicide. See Kenneth Woodin, The Children of Jonestown (New York: McGraw-Hill 1981).
141. Maaga (note 1).
142. Moore (note 5) pp.126-127.
143. See Phil Tracy, 'More on Peoples Temple: The Strange Suicides', New West (August 15 1977) pp.18-19.
144. Woodin (note 70).
145. Wessinger (note 2); Hall (note 1).
146. See Dawson (note 53) pp.148-52, for the impact of encapsulation.
147. See Robbins and Palmer (note 2) and Wessinger (note 2).
148. See Wright (notes 1 and 27), Wessinger (note 2), Tabor and Gallagher (note 1), and Richardson (note 3). Also see the special symposium in Nova Religio 3/1 (1999) on the topic 'Scholars of New Religions and Law Enforcement Officials' for a thorough discussion of such issues.
149. See Rosenfeld (note 30) p.202.
150. See Mayer (note 30) and Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2).
151. Introvigne (note 30).
152. Ibid p.157.
153. Wessinger (note 2).
154. See Manuba Watanabe, 'Reactions to the Aum Affair: The Rise of the Anti-Cult Movement in Japan', Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture 21 (1997) pp.32-48; as well as Reader (notes 1 and 7), Lifton (note 1), and Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2). Wessinger's analysis of the Aum episode is especially useful.
155. See Manuba Watanabe, 'Reactions to the Aum Affair: The Rise of the Anti-Cult Movement in Japan', Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture 21 (1997) pp.32-48; as well as Reader (notes 1 and 7), Lifton (note 1), and Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2). Wessinger's analysis of the Aum episode is especially useful.
156. Reader (note 1) p.170 and Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) p.136.
157. Balch (note 28).
158. Ibid p.24.
159. Davis (note 28).
160. Ibid., p.260.
161. Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) p.243.
162. See James Richardson, 'New Religions on Trial: The Case of the Rajneesh in Oregon', Presented at Pacific Sociological Association annual meeting, Spokane, Washington and Lewis Carter, Charisma and Control in Rajneeshpuram (New York: Cambridge University Press 1990).
163. Ibid., pp.201-40.
164. Richardson (note 91).
165. See New York Tunes (March 23, 1988) p.A15.
166. See James Lewis and Gordon Melton (note 42), William Smith, 'Environmental Impacts, Stewardship, and Development: The Building of a Religious Community in Montana', SYGYZY: Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture 3/3 (1994) pp.231-240, and Catherine Wessinger, 'Millennialism With and Without the Mayhem', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.47-59.
167. See James Lewis and Gordon Melton (note 42), William Smith, 'Environmental Impacts, Stewardship, and Development: The Building of a Religious Community in Montana', SYGYZY: Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture 3/3 (1994) pp.231-240, and Catherine Wessinger, 'Millennialism With and Without the Mayhem', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.47-59.
168. Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) p.258. Also see her discussions of the Freeman standoff in Montana and the Chen Tao situation in Garland Texas, both of which ended peacefully. Also see Rosenfeld (note 1) on the Freeman situation and Lonnie Kliever, 'Meeting God in Garland: A Model for Religious Tolerance', Nova Religio 3/1 (1999) pp.45-53 on Chen Tao.
169. Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) p.258. Also see her discussions of the Freeman standoff in Montana and the Chen Tao situation in Garland Texas, both of which ended peacefully. Also see Rosenfeld (note 1) on the Freeman situation and Lonnie Kliever, 'Meeting God in Garland: A Model for Religious Tolerance', Nova Religio 3/1 (1999) pp.45-53 on Chen Tao.
170. Ibid., p.285 n.14.
171. See Bromley et al. (note 47) on 'atrocity tales' and Beckford (note 3) on 'negative summary events'.
172. For examples of these three types see ibid, as well as Anson Shupe, Roger Spielman, and Sam Stigall, 'Deprogramming: The New Exorcism', in James Richardson (ed.), Conversion Careers: In and Out of the New Religions (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1978) pp.145-58; King (note 24); Bromley and Richardson (note 23); Anson Shupe and David Bromley, The New Vigilantes (Beverly Hill, CA: Sage 1980); Massimo Introvigne, 'Moral Panics and Anti-Cult Terrorism in Western Europe', presented at CESNUR Conference, Turin, Italy (1998); and Massimo Introvigne, 'Anti-Cult Terrorism on the Internet', presented at annual meeting of the Association for the Sociology of Religion, Chicago (1999), as well as Introvigne (note 15).
173. For examples of these three types see ibid, as well as Anson Shupe, Roger Spielman, and Sam Stigall, 'Deprogramming: The New Exorcism', in James Richardson (ed.), Conversion Careers: In and Out of the New Religions (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1978) pp.145-58; King (note 24); Bromley and Richardson (note 23); Anson Shupe and David Bromley, The New Vigilantes (Beverly Hill, CA: Sage 1980); Massimo Introvigne, 'Moral Panics and Anti-Cult Terrorism in Western Europe', presented at CESNUR Conference, Turin, Italy (1998); and Massimo Introvigne, 'Anti-Cult Terrorism on the Internet', presented at annual meeting of the Association for the Sociology of Religion, Chicago (1999), as well as Introvigne (note 15).
174. For examples of these three types see ibid, as well as Anson Shupe, Roger Spielman, and Sam Stigall, 'Deprogramming: The New Exorcism', in James Richardson (ed.), Conversion Careers: In and Out of the New Religions (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1978) pp.145-58; King (note 24); Bromley and Richardson (note 23); Anson Shupe and David Bromley, The New Vigilantes (Beverly Hill, CA: Sage 1980); Massimo Introvigne, 'Moral Panics and Anti-Cult Terrorism in Western Europe', presented at CESNUR Conference, Turin, Italy (1998); and Massimo Introvigne, 'Anti-Cult Terrorism on the Internet', presented at annual meeting of the Association for the Sociology of Religion, Chicago (1999), as well as Introvigne (note 15).
175. For examples of these three types see ibid, as well as Anson Shupe, Roger Spielman, and Sam Stigall, 'Deprogramming: The New Exorcism', in James Richardson (ed.), Conversion Careers: In and Out of the New Religions (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1978) pp.145-58; King (note 24); Bromley and Richardson (note 23); Anson Shupe and David Bromley, The New Vigilantes (Beverly Hill, CA: Sage 1980); Massimo Introvigne, 'Moral Panics and Anti-Cult Terrorism in Western Europe', presented at CESNUR Conference, Turin, Italy (1998); and Massimo Introvigne, 'Anti-Cult Terrorism on the Internet', presented at annual meeting of the Association for the Sociology of Religion, Chicago (1999), as well as Introvigne (note 15).
176. Beckford (note 3) p.237.
177. Bromley et al. (note 47).
178. Neither Bromley et al. (note 47) nor I are saying that the subjects of atrocity tales are never true. Indeed, as already admitted herein, sometimes atrocious things do occur in new religious groups. The issue is their frequency and generalizability, and the way such instances may be used by a group's detractors and the media for purposes other than a full and accurate description of life in a given group.
179. See van Driel and Richardson (note 3) for similar conclusions from a broader study.
180. Beckford (note 3).
181. See Ellison and Bartkowski (note 46), and especially Richardson (note 3).
182. See Tabor and Gallagher (note 1) p.101, as well as Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) p. [??].
183. See Richardson (note 44) and Swantko (note 44).
184. Tabor and Gallagher (note 1) p.102.
185. See Richardson (note 46) and Rebecca Moore, The Davidian Massacre (Franklin,TN:Legacy Communication 1995).
186. See Harvey Cox, 'Myths Sanctioning Religious Persecution', in M.D. Bryant and Herbert Richardson (eds.),A Time for Reconsideration (New York: Edwin Mellen Press 1978); Bert Testa, 'Making Crime Seem Natural: News and Deprogramming', in Bryant and Richardson, ibid., pp.41-81; Barbara Hargrove, 'Social Sources and Consequences of the Brainwashing Myth', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.299-308; and Introvigne (note 15).
187. See Harvey Cox, 'Myths Sanctioning Religious Persecution', in M.D. Bryant and Herbert Richardson (eds.),A Time for Reconsideration (New York: Edwin Mellen Press 1978); Bert Testa, 'Making Crime Seem Natural: News and Deprogramming', in Bryant and Richardson, ibid., pp.41-81; Barbara Hargrove, 'Social Sources and Consequences of the Brainwashing Myth', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.299-308; and Introvigne (note 15).
188. See Harvey Cox, 'Myths Sanctioning Religious Persecution', in M.D. Bryant and Herbert Richardson (eds.),A Time for Reconsideration (New York: Edwin Mellen Press 1978); Bert Testa, 'Making Crime Seem Natural: News and Deprogramming', in Bryant and Richardson, ibid., pp.41-81; Barbara Hargrove, 'Social Sources and Consequences of the Brainwashing Myth', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.299-308; and Introvigne (note 15).
189. For a discussion of how these ideas get acted out in the legal setting to the detriment of controversial newer faiths, see James Richardson, 'Discretion and Discrimination in Legal Cases Involving Controversial Religious Groups or Allegations of Ritual Abuse', in Rex Ahdar (ed.), Law and Religion (Aldershot: Ashgate 2000) pp. 111-32.
190. See David Davis, 'Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature', Mississippi Valley Historical Review XLVII/2 (1960) pp.205-24; Donald Miller, 'Deprogramming in Historical Perspective', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp. 15-28; and Shupe and Bromley (note 99).
191. See David Davis, 'Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature', Mississippi Valley Historical Review XLVII/2 (1960) pp.205-24; Donald Miller, 'Deprogramming in Historical Perspective', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp. 15-28; and Shupe and Bromley (note 99).
192. Davis, ibid.; Miller, ibid.; Massimo Introvigne, 'Latter Day Revisited: Contemporary Mormon Millenianism', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.229-44; Underwood (note 49).
193. Davis, ibid.; Miller, ibid.; Massimo Introvigne, 'Latter Day Revisited: Contemporary Mormon Millenianism', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.229-44; Underwood (note 49).
194. Davis, ibid.; Miller, ibid.; Massimo Introvigne, 'Latter Day Revisited: Contemporary Mormon Millenianism', in Robbins and Palmer (note 2) pp.229-44; Underwood (note 49).
195. See Kilbourne and Richardson (note 6), and M.L. Gross, The Psychological Society (1978) and on 'secular priests' see Perry London, The Modes and Morals of Psychotherapy (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1964).
196. See Kilbourne and Richardson (note 6), and M.L. Gross, The Psychological Society (1978) and on 'secular priests' see Perry London, The Modes and Morals of Psychotherapy (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1964).
197. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
198. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
199. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
200. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
201. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
202. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
203. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
204. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
205. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry-III (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1980) pp.3245-58; Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe, 'Attacks on Peripheral versus Central Elements of Self and the Impact of Thought Reforming Techniques',Cultic Studies Journal 3/1 3-24; Margaret Singer (with Janja Lalich), Cults in Our Midst (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1995); Eli Shapiro, 'Destructive Cultism', American Family Physician 15 (1977) pp.80-83; John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9 (1978) pp.19-21; John Clark, Michael Langone, R.E. Schecter, and R. Daly, Destructive Cult Conversion (Weston, MA: American Family Foundation 1981). Also see the work a legal scholar who has assisted in legitimating anti-cult activities: Richard Delgado,'Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion Under the First Amendment', University of Southern California Law Review 51 (1977) pp.1-100 and Richard Delgado, 'Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent', in Thomas Robbins, Wiliam Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico, CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.11-128. Delgado even made a claim that participation in a new religion was tantamount to slavery in Richard Delgado, 'Religious Totalism as Slavery', New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80) pp.51-68.
206. See Margaret Singer, 'Coming Out of the Cults', Psychology Today 12 (1979) pp.72-82; Louis West and Margaret Singer, 'Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies', in H. Kapland, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock (eds.),
207. See Shupe and Bromley (note 99) and Anson Shupe and David Bromley (eds.), Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Comparison (New York: Garland 1994); James Richardson, 'Conversion, Brainwashing, and Deprogramming', Center Magazine 15/2 (1980) pp.18-24.
208. See Shupe and Bromley (note 99) and Anson Shupe and David Bromley (eds.), Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Comparison (New York: Garland 1994); James Richardson, 'Conversion, Brainwashing, and Deprogramming', Center Magazine 15/2 (1980) pp.18-24.
209. See Byong-Suh Kim, 'Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality', Sociological Analysis 40 (1979) pp.197-207; Richardson, van der Lans, and Derks (note 12); John Biermans, The Odyssey of New Religions Today (New York: Edwin Meilen 1988); Stuart Wright, Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection (Washington, D.C.: Society for the Scientific Study of Religion 1987); Trudy Solomon, 'Integrating the "Moonie" Experience: A Survey of Ex-Members of the Unification Church', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books) pp. 275-303; James Lewis and David Bromley, 'The Cult Withdrawal Syndrome: A Case of Misattribution of Cause?' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 26 (1987) pp.508-22; David Bromley, 'Deprogramming as a Mode of Exit from New Religious Movements: The Case of the Unificationist Movement', in David Bromley (ed.), Falling from the Faith (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1988) pp.185-204. See Bromley and Richardson (note 23) and Shupe and Bromley (notes 99 and 114) for more details on the early history of deprogramming.
210. See Byong-Suh Kim, 'Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality', Sociological Analysis 40 (1979) pp.197-207; Richardson, van der Lans, and Derks (note 12); John Biermans, The Odyssey of New Religions Today (New York: Edwin Meilen 1988); Stuart Wright, Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection (Washington, D.C.: Society for the Scientific Study of Religion 1987); Trudy Solomon, 'Integrating the "Moonie" Experience: A Survey of Ex-Members of the Unification Church', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books) pp. 275-303; James Lewis and David Bromley, 'The Cult Withdrawal Syndrome: A Case of Misattribution of Cause?' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 26 (1987) pp.508-22; David Bromley, 'Deprogramming as a Mode of Exit from New Religious Movements: The Case of the Unificationist Movement', in David Bromley (ed.), Falling from the Faith (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1988) pp.185-204. See Bromley and Richardson (note 23) and Shupe and Bromley (notes 99 and 114) for more details on the early history of deprogramming.
211. See Byong-Suh Kim, 'Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality', Sociological Analysis 40 (1979) pp.197-207; Richardson, van der Lans, and Derks (note 12); John Biermans, The Odyssey of New Religions Today (New York: Edwin Meilen 1988); Stuart Wright, Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection (Washington, D.C.: Society for the Scientific Study of Religion 1987); Trudy Solomon, 'Integrating the "Moonie" Experience: A Survey of Ex-Members of the Unification Church', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books) pp. 275-303; James Lewis and David Bromley, 'The Cult Withdrawal Syndrome: A Case of Misattribution of Cause?' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 26 (1987) pp.508-22; David Bromley, 'Deprogramming as a Mode of Exit from New Religious Movements: The Case of the Unificationist Movement', in David Bromley (ed.), Falling from the Faith (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1988) pp.185-204. See Bromley and Richardson (note 23) and Shupe and Bromley (notes 99 and 114) for more details on the early history of deprogramming.
212. See Byong-Suh Kim, 'Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality', Sociological Analysis 40 (1979) pp.197-207; Richardson, van der Lans, and Derks (note 12); John Biermans, The Odyssey of New Religions Today (New York: Edwin Meilen 1988); Stuart Wright, Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection (Washington, D.C.: Society for the Scientific Study of Religion 1987); Trudy Solomon, 'Integrating the "Moonie" Experience: A Survey of Ex-Members of the Unification Church', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books) pp. 275-303; James Lewis and David Bromley, 'The Cult Withdrawal Syndrome: A Case of Misattribution of Cause?' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 26 (1987) pp.508-22; David Bromley, 'Deprogramming as a Mode of Exit from New Religious Movements: The Case of the Unificationist Movement', in David Bromley (ed.), Falling from the Faith (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1988) pp.185-204. See Bromley and Richardson (note 23) and Shupe and Bromley (notes 99 and 114) for more details on the early history of deprogramming.
213. See Byong-Suh Kim, 'Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality', Sociological Analysis 40 (1979) pp.197-207; Richardson, van der Lans, and Derks (note 12); John Biermans, The Odyssey of New Religions Today (New York: Edwin Meilen 1988); Stuart Wright, Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection (Washington, D.C.: Society for the Scientific Study of Religion 1987); Trudy Solomon, 'Integrating the "Moonie" Experience: A Survey of Ex-Members of the Unification Church', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books) pp. 275-303; James Lewis and David Bromley, 'The Cult Withdrawal Syndrome: A Case of Misattribution of Cause?' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 26 (1987) pp.508-22; David Bromley, 'Deprogramming as a Mode of Exit from New Religious Movements: The Case of the Unificationist Movement', in David Bromley (ed.), Falling from the Faith (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1988) pp.185-204. See Bromley and Richardson (note 23) and Shupe and Bromley (notes 99 and 114) for more details on the early history of deprogramming.
214. See Byong-Suh Kim, 'Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality', Sociological Analysis 40 (1979) pp.197-207; Richardson, van der Lans, and Derks (note 12); John Biermans, The Odyssey of New Religions Today (New York: Edwin Meilen 1988); Stuart Wright, Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection (Washington, D.C.: Society for the Scientific Study of Religion 1987); Trudy Solomon, 'Integrating the "Moonie" Experience: A Survey of Ex-Members of the Unification Church', in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books) pp. 275-303; James Lewis and David Bromley, 'The Cult Withdrawal Syndrome: A Case of Misattribution of Cause?' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 26 (1987) pp.508-22; David Bromley, 'Deprogramming as a Mode of Exit from New Religious Movements: The Case of the Unificationist Movement', in David Bromley (ed.), Falling from the Faith (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1988) pp.185-204. See Bromley and Richardson (note 23) and Shupe and Bromley (notes 99 and 114) for more details on the early history of deprogramming.
215. The recent major movie directed by Academy Award winning director Jane Campion, "Holy Smoke" supposedly illustrates an attempted 'exit counseling'. Some elements of the film may be typical, even if they were upsetting to some in the anti-cult movement. However, the deprogrammee being able to assert herself and take charge of the situation as did the character played by Kate Winslett seems highly unlikely.
216. See the claim of one prominent deprogrammer to have deprogrammed over 2500 people in Ted Patrick (with T. Dulak), Let Our Children Go! (New York: E.P. Dutton 1976).
217. However, as a consequence of some deprogrammings, lawsuits have been filed against parents and others (see William Shepherd, 'Constitutional Law and Marginal Religions', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.258-66), and charges of kidnapping have been brought against some of those involved. Evidence is building which indicates that some persons have been both physically and psychologically harmed by the actions of deprogrammers (see Trudy Solomon (note 117); J.T. Ungerleider and K.K. Wellisch, 'Coercive Persuasion (Brainwashing), Religious Cults, and Deprogramming', American Journal of Psychiatry 136/3(1979) pp.279-82), and some have developed apparently severe psychological problems as a result (see John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9/4 (1978) pp.19-21). The efforts may also solidify religious groups against the perceived external enemies - the deprogrammers (see Eileen Barker, 'With Enemies Like That...Some Functions of Deprogramming as an Aid to Sectarian Membership', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.329-44). Thus, as a tactic of social control of the cults, deprogramming cannot be viewed as an unqualified success. The process of coercive deprogramming which has led some to claim that it is deprogramming, and not the recruitment practices of the newer religions, that most resembles purported 'thought reform' and 'mind control' techniques (see Richardson (note 116). See Gamson (note 24) for the most thorough discussion available on the idea of violence as a tactic of social protest and the 'success' of using violence in social conflict situations.
218. However, as a consequence of some deprogrammings, lawsuits have been filed against parents and others (see William Shepherd, 'Constitutional Law and Marginal Religions', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.258-66), and charges of kidnapping have been brought against some of those involved. Evidence is building which indicates that some persons have been both physically and psychologically harmed by the actions of deprogrammers (see Trudy Solomon (note 117); J.T. Ungerleider and K.K. Wellisch, 'Coercive Persuasion (Brainwashing), Religious Cults, and Deprogramming', American Journal of Psychiatry 136/3(1979) pp.279-82), and some have developed apparently severe psychological problems as a result (see John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9/4 (1978) pp.19-21). The efforts may also solidify religious groups against the perceived external enemies - the deprogrammers (see Eileen Barker, 'With Enemies Like That...Some Functions of Deprogramming as an Aid to Sectarian Membership', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.329-44). Thus, as a tactic of social control of the cults, deprogramming cannot be viewed as an unqualified success. The process of coercive deprogramming which has led some to claim that it is deprogramming, and not the recruitment practices of the newer religions, that most resembles purported 'thought reform' and 'mind control' techniques (see Richardson (note 116). See Gamson (note 24) for the most thorough discussion available on the idea of violence as a tactic of social protest and the 'success' of using violence in social conflict situations.
219. However, as a consequence of some deprogrammings, lawsuits have been filed against parents and others (see William Shepherd, 'Constitutional Law and Marginal Religions', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.258-66), and charges of kidnapping have been brought against some of those involved. Evidence is building which indicates that some persons have been both physically and psychologically harmed by the actions of deprogrammers (see Trudy Solomon (note 117); J.T. Ungerleider and K.K. Wellisch, 'Coercive Persuasion (Brainwashing), Religious Cults, and Deprogramming', American Journal of Psychiatry 136/3(1979) pp.279-82), and some have developed apparently severe psychological problems as a result (see John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9/4 (1978) pp.19-21). The efforts may also solidify religious groups against the perceived external enemies - the deprogrammers (see Eileen Barker, 'With Enemies Like That...Some Functions of Deprogramming as an Aid to Sectarian Membership', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.329-44). Thus, as a tactic of social control of the cults, deprogramming cannot be viewed as an unqualified success. The process of coercive deprogramming which has led some to claim that it is deprogramming, and not the recruitment practices of the newer religions, that most resembles purported 'thought reform' and 'mind control' techniques (see Richardson (note 116). See Gamson (note 24) for the most thorough discussion available on the idea of violence as a tactic of social protest and the 'success' of using violence in social conflict situations.
220. However, as a consequence of some deprogrammings, lawsuits have been filed against parents and others (see William Shepherd, 'Constitutional Law and Marginal Religions', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.258-66), and charges of kidnapping have been brought against some of those involved. Evidence is building which indicates that some persons have been both physically and psychologically harmed by the actions of deprogrammers (see Trudy Solomon (note 117); J.T. Ungerleider and K.K. Wellisch, 'Coercive Persuasion (Brainwashing), Religious Cults, and Deprogramming', American Journal of Psychiatry 136/3(1979) pp.279-82), and some have developed apparently severe psychological problems as a result (see John Clark, 'Problems in Referral of Cult Members', Journal of the National Association of Private Psychiatric Hospitals 9/4 (1978) pp.19-21). The efforts may also solidify religious groups against the perceived external enemies - the deprogrammers (see Eileen Barker, 'With Enemies Like That...Some Functions of Deprogramming as an Aid to Sectarian Membership', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.329-44). Thus, as a tactic of social control of the cults, deprogramming cannot be viewed as an unqualified success. The process of coercive deprogramming which has led some to claim that it is deprogramming, and not the recruitment practices of the newer religions, that most resembles purported 'thought reform' and 'mind control' techniques (see Richardson (note 116). See Gamson (note 24) for the most thorough discussion available on the idea of violence as a tactic of social protest and the 'success' of using violence in social conflict situations.
221. Brock Kilbourne, 'Deconversion: The Conversion Out of Religions', Paper presented at annual meeting of Pacific Sociological Association, San Jose, CA (1983).
222. See Anthony F.C. Wallace, Religion: An Anthropological View (New York: Random House 1970).
223. Kilbourne (note 121).
224. See David Bromley, 'Conservatorships and Deprogramming', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.267-94, and John LeMoult, 'Deprogramming Members of Religious Sects', ibid., pp.234-57.
225. See David Bromley, 'Conservatorships and Deprogramming', in Bromley and Richardson (note 23) pp.267-94, and John LeMoult, 'Deprogramming Members of Religious Sects', ibid., pp.234-57.
226. See Shupe and Bromley (note 99).
227. Ibid.; and Richardson (1996) (note 3); Introvigne (note 15); Massimo Introvigne, 'Blacklisting or Greenlisting? A European Perspective on the Cult Wars', Nova Religio 2, pp. 16-23; Swantko (note 44); Wright (note 1); Tabor and Gallagher (note 1); Bromley et al. (note 47); Marat Shterin and James Richardson, 'Effects of the Western Anti-Cult Movement on Development of Laws Concerning Religion in Post-Communist Russia', Journal of Church and State 42 (2000) pp.247-71.
228. Ibid.; and Richardson (1996) (note 3); Introvigne (note 15); Massimo Introvigne, 'Blacklisting or Greenlisting? A European Perspective on the Cult Wars', Nova Religio 2, pp. 16-23; Swantko (note 44); Wright (note 1); Tabor and Gallagher (note 1); Bromley et al. (note 47); Marat Shterin and James Richardson, 'Effects of the Western Anti-Cult Movement on Development of Laws Concerning Religion in Post-Communist Russia', Journal of Church and State 42 (2000) pp.247-71.
229. Shupe and Bromley (note 99).
230. See Introvigne (note 99).
231. See Frank Flinn, 'Criminalizing Conversion: The Legislative Assault on New Religions', in James Day and William Laufer (eds.), Crime, Values, and Religion (Norwood,NJ: Ablex Publishing 1987) pp.153-91; Jeremiah Guttman, 'The Legislative Assault on New Religions', in Thomas Robbins, William Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico,CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.101-10; James Richardson, 'Consumer Protection and Deviant Religion', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986) pp.168-79; Introvigne (note 15); and Shetrin and Richardson (2000) (note 126) for examples of direct attempts to influence legislation about new religions.
232. See Frank Flinn, 'Criminalizing Conversion: The Legislative Assault on New Religions', in James Day and William Laufer (eds.), Crime, Values, and Religion (Norwood,NJ: Ablex Publishing 1987) pp.153-91; Jeremiah Guttman, 'The Legislative Assault on New Religions', in Thomas Robbins, William Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico,CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.101-10; James Richardson, 'Consumer Protection and Deviant Religion', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986) pp.168-79; Introvigne (note 15); and Shetrin and Richardson (2000) (note 126) for examples of direct attempts to influence legislation about new religions.
233. See Frank Flinn, 'Criminalizing Conversion: The Legislative Assault on New Religions', in James Day and William Laufer (eds.), Crime, Values, and Religion (Norwood,NJ: Ablex Publishing 1987) pp.153-91; Jeremiah Guttman, 'The Legislative Assault on New Religions', in Thomas Robbins, William Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico,CA: Scholars Press 1985) pp.101-10; James Richardson, 'Consumer Protection and Deviant Religion', Review of Religious Research 28/2 (1986) pp.168-79; Introvigne (note 15); and Shetrin and Richardson (2000) (note 126) for examples of direct attempts to influence legislation about new religions.
234. See Shupe and Bromley (note 99).
235. Attacks on minority religions by entities of the Anti-Cult Movement can fruitfully be viewed as a form of violence, but these, too, should not be considered as indicating a 'violent character' of participants in the Anti-Cult Movement. Similar to violence which seems at first glance to be an inherent part of the new religions, Anti-Cult 'violence' (in the form of organizational attacks and deprogramming) is better viewed as arising out of the competitive and conflictual relationship between new religions and the dominant culture (see Kilbourne and Richardson (1984) (note 6)). Both deprogramming and acts of violence by cult members, for instance, appear to arise out of the conflictual relationship between religious groups and external forces in dominant society, including the Anti-Cult Movement.
236. Much of the information in this paragraph is derived from Shupe and Bromley (notes 99 and 114).
237. See Meade Emory and Lawrence Zelenak, 'The Tax Exempt Status of Communitarian Religious Organizations: An Unnecessary Controversy?', in Thomas Robbins, William Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico,CA: Scholars Press) pp.177-201; James Richardson, 'The "Deformation" of New Religious Groups', in Robbins, Shepherd, and McBride ibid., pp. 163-75; James Richardson, Money and Power in the New Religions (New York: Edwin Mellen 1988); James Richardson, 'Changing Times: Religion, Economics, and the Law in Contemporary America', Sociological Analysis 49/S (1988) pp.1-14.
238. See Meade Emory and Lawrence Zelenak, 'The Tax Exempt Status of Communitarian Religious Organizations: An Unnecessary Controversy?', in Thomas Robbins, William Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico,CA: Scholars Press) pp.177-201; James Richardson, 'The "Deformation" of New Religious Groups', in Robbins, Shepherd, and McBride ibid., pp. 163-75; James Richardson, Money and Power in the New Religions (New York: Edwin Mellen 1988); James Richardson, 'Changing Times: Religion, Economics, and the Law in Contemporary America', Sociological Analysis 49/S (1988) pp.1-14.
239. See Meade Emory and Lawrence Zelenak, 'The Tax Exempt Status of Communitarian Religious Organizations: An Unnecessary Controversy?', in Thomas Robbins, William Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico,CA: Scholars Press) pp.177-201; James Richardson, 'The "Deformation" of New Religious Groups', in Robbins, Shepherd, and McBride ibid., pp. 163-75; James Richardson, Money and Power in the New Religions (New York: Edwin Mellen 1988); James Richardson, 'Changing Times: Religion, Economics, and the Law in Contemporary America', Sociological Analysis 49/S (1988) pp.1-14.
240. See Meade Emory and Lawrence Zelenak, 'The Tax Exempt Status of Communitarian Religious Organizations: An Unnecessary Controversy?', in Thomas Robbins, William Shepherd, and James McBride (eds.), Cults, Culture, and the Law (Chico,CA: Scholars Press) pp.177-201; James Richardson, 'The "Deformation" of New Religious Groups', in Robbins, Shepherd, and McBride ibid., pp. 163-75; James Richardson, Money and Power in the New Religions (New York: Edwin Mellen 1988); James Richardson, 'Changing Times: Religion, Economics, and the Law in Contemporary America', Sociological Analysis 49/S (1988) pp.1-14.
241. This effort may have back-fired, since a number of mainstream religious organizations came to the defense of Reverend Moon, because they organized their finances similarly to the methods used by the Unification Church. Also, the effort attracted the attention of major legal scholars, as evidenced by the fact that Harvard law professor Lawrence Tribe carried the appeal to the United States Supreme Court. See Herbert Richardson (ed.), Constitutional Issues in the Case of Rev. Moon (New York: Edwin Mellen 1984); James Richardson, 'Public Opinion and the Tax Evasion Trial of Reverend Moon', Behavioural Sciences & the Law 10 (1992) pp.53-63; and Carlton Sherwood, The Inquisition: The Persecution and Prosecution of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon (Washington,D.C.: Regnery Gateway 1991).
242. This effort may have back-fired, since a number of mainstream religious organizations came to the defense of Reverend Moon, because they organized their finances similarly to the methods used by the Unification Church. Also, the effort attracted the attention of major legal scholars, as evidenced by the fact that Harvard law professor Lawrence Tribe carried the appeal to the United States Supreme Court. See Herbert Richardson (ed.), Constitutional Issues in the Case of Rev. Moon (New York: Edwin Mellen 1984); James Richardson, 'Public Opinion and the Tax Evasion Trial of Reverend Moon', Behavioural Sciences & the Law 10 (1992) pp.53-63; and Carlton Sherwood, The Inquisition: The Persecution and Prosecution of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon (Washington,D.C.: Regnery Gateway 1991).
243. This effort may have back-fired, since a number of mainstream religious organizations came to the defense of Reverend Moon, because they organized their finances similarly to the methods used by the Unification Church. Also, the effort attracted the attention of major legal scholars, as evidenced by the fact that Harvard law professor Lawrence Tribe carried the appeal to the United States Supreme Court. See Herbert Richardson (ed.), Constitutional Issues in the Case of Rev. Moon (New York: Edwin Mellen 1984); James Richardson, 'Public Opinion and the Tax Evasion Trial of Reverend Moon', Behavioural Sciences & the Law 10 (1992) pp.53-63; and Carlton Sherwood, The Inquisition: The Persecution and Prosecution of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon (Washington,D.C.: Regnery Gateway 1991).
244. See Garrison (note 41).
245. See Carter (note 91) and also Richardson (note 91).
246. See Swantko (note 44).
247. See Richardson (note 44).
248. See Beckford (note 3); James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'New Religions in Europe: A Comparison of Developments and Reactions in England, France, Germany, and The Netherlands,' in Shupe and Bromley (1994) (note 114), pp.129-70; Anson Shupe, Bert Hardin, and David Bromley, 'A Comparison of the Anti-Cult Movement in the U.S. and Germany', in Eileen Barker (ed.), Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West (Macon:GA: Mercer Press 1983) pp.177-91.
249. See Beckford (note 3); James Richardson and Barend van Driel, 'New Religions in Europe: A Comparison of Developments and Reactions in England, France, Germany, and The Netherlands,' in Shupe and Bromley (1994) (note 114), pp.129-70; Anson Shupe, Bert Hardin, and David Bromley, 'A Comparison of the Anti-Cult Movement in the U.S. and Germany', in Eileen Barker (ed.), Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West (Macon:GA: Mercer Press 1983) pp.177-91.
250. See James Richardson and Massimo Introvigne, '"Brainwashing" Claims in Official Governmental Reports in Western Europe', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (forthcoming, 2001), as well as Introvigne (note 15). Also on Belgium see Willy Fautre, Belgium's Anti-Sect War' Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.353-64; and on France see Massimo Introvigne, 'Holy Mountains and Anti-Cult Ecology: The Campaign Against the Aumist Religion in France', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.365-75, and Swantko (note 44), and on Germany see Hubert Seiwert, 'The German Enquette Commission on Sects: Political Conflicts and Compromises', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.323-40 and Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe, '"Verfassungsfeindlich": Church, State, and New Religions in Germany', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.208-27.
251. See James Richardson and Massimo Introvigne, '"Brainwashing" Claims in Official Governmental Reports in Western Europe', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (forthcoming, 2001), as well as Introvigne (note 15). Also on Belgium see Willy Fautre, Belgium's Anti-Sect War' Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.353-64; and on France see Massimo Introvigne, 'Holy Mountains and Anti-Cult Ecology: The Campaign Against the Aumist Religion in France', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.365-75, and Swantko (note 44), and on Germany see Hubert Seiwert, 'The German Enquette Commission on Sects: Political Conflicts and Compromises', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.323-40 and Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe, '"Verfassungsfeindlich": Church, State, and New Religions in Germany', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.208-27.
252. See James Richardson and Massimo Introvigne, '"Brainwashing" Claims in Official Governmental Reports in Western Europe', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (forthcoming, 2001), as well as Introvigne (note 15). Also on Belgium see Willy Fautre, Belgium's Anti-Sect War' Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.353-64; and on France see Massimo Introvigne, 'Holy Mountains and Anti-Cult Ecology: The Campaign Against the Aumist Religion in France', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.365-75, and Swantko (note 44), and on Germany see Hubert Seiwert, 'The German Enquette Commission on Sects: Political Conflicts and Compromises', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.323-40 and Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe, '"Verfassungsfeindlich": Church, State, and New Religions in Germany', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.208-27.
253. See James Richardson and Massimo Introvigne, '"Brainwashing" Claims in Official Governmental Reports in Western Europe', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (forthcoming, 2001), as well as Introvigne (note 15). Also on Belgium see Willy Fautre, Belgium's Anti-Sect War' Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.353-64; and on France see Massimo Introvigne, 'Holy Mountains and Anti-Cult Ecology: The Campaign Against the Aumist Religion in France', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.365-75, and Swantko (note 44), and on Germany see Hubert Seiwert, 'The German Enquette Commission on Sects: Political Conflicts and Compromises', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.323-40 and Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe, '"Verfassungsfeindlich": Church, State, and New Religions in Germany', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.208-27.
254. See James Richardson and Massimo Introvigne, '"Brainwashing" Claims in Official Governmental Reports in Western Europe', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (forthcoming, 2001), as well as Introvigne (note 15). Also on Belgium see Willy Fautre, Belgium's Anti-Sect War' Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.353-64; and on France see Massimo Introvigne, 'Holy Mountains and Anti-Cult Ecology: The Campaign Against the Aumist Religion in France', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.365-75, and Swantko (note 44), and on Germany see Hubert Seiwert, 'The German Enquette Commission on Sects: Political Conflicts and Compromises', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.323-40 and Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe, '"Verfassungsfeindlich": Church, State, and New Religions in Germany', Nova Religio 2/2 (1999) pp.208-27.
255. For more on (he situation in France see Massimo Introvigne and Gordon Mellon, Pour en finir avec les sectes (Milano: Di Giovanni 1996) and Introvigne (note 15).
256. See Galina Krylova, 'The Jehovah's Witness Case in Moscow', presented at CESNUR Conference, Bryn Athyn, PA (1999)and
257. Marat Shetrin and James Richardson, 'Local Laws Restricting Religion in Russia: Precursors of Russia's New National Law', Journal of Church and State 40 (1998) pp.319-41.
258. See especially Shetrin and Richardson (2000) (note 126).
259. See James Richardson and Marat Shetrin, 'Court Cases Involving New Religions in Russia', Social Justice Research 12/4 (1999) pp.393-408.
260. Obviously, situations such as that which occurred with the Aum Shinrikyo in Japan represent something of a limiting case on this assertion. As noted herein and in Reader (notes 1 and 7) and Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently (note 2) this group became extremely violent as its failure to accomplish its goals interacted with growing opposition from external forces.
261. See the special issue of Nova Religio 2/1 (1998) containing the comments of several scholars on this conflict and polarization. Also see James Richardson, 'Sociology and the New Religion: "Brainwashing", the Courts, and Religious Freedom', in Pamela Jenkins and Steve Kroll-Smith (eds.) Witnessing for Sociology: Sociologists in Court (New York: Praeger 1996) pp.115-34; Robbins (1997) (note 1) and Kaplan (note 7), as well as Reader (note 7) for illustration of the seriousness of the conflicts over how to interpret the phenomenon of newer religions. The conflict, which has also engulfed this field of study in Europe and elsewhere, has involved personal attacks and law suits against scholars, and professional associations by other academics, and has moved well beyond friendly differences of opinion.
262. See the special issue of Nova Religio 2/1 (1998) containing the comments of several scholars on this conflict and polarization. Also see James Richardson, 'Sociology and the New Religion: "Brainwashing", the Courts, and Religious Freedom', in Pamela Jenkins and Steve Kroll-Smith (eds.) Witnessing for Sociology: Sociologists in Court (New York: Praeger 1996) pp.115-34; Robbins (1997) (note 1) and Kaplan (note 7), as well as Reader (note 7) for illustration of the seriousness of the conflicts over how to interpret the phenomenon of newer religions. The conflict, which has also engulfed this field of study in Europe and elsewhere, has involved personal attacks and law suits against scholars, and professional associations by other academics, and has moved well beyond friendly differences of opinion.
263. See Marx (note 15).
264. Richardson (note 133) claims that the diverting of significant resources into defensive efforts by new religions is one of the major ways that they are 'deformed' from their original goals and organizational structure.