Internal security and decolonization in Kenya, 1956-63

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 92-116

  Percox, David A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035629130     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086530108583113     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
2. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
3. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
4. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
5. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
6. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
7. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
8. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford, 1991); idem, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988); idem, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds.), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London, 1984), 187-209; J.D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (Harlow, 1990 [1988]); R.F. Holland, European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey (Basingstoke, 1985); idem, 'The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945-63', in Holland and Rizvi, 165-86; Brian Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985); and A.N. Porter and A.J. Stockwell (eds.), British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64, 2 Vols (London, 1987, 1989).
9. For a summary of scholarly explanations of Britain's withdrawal from Africa see: Ritchie Ovendale, 'Macmillan and the Wind of Change in Africa, 1957-1960', Historical Journal, 38, 2 (1995), 455-7.
10. Note that during 'the decade after 1947 recruitment into the colonial service increased by 50 per cent', David Reynolds, Britannia Overruled: British Policy and World Power in the Twentieth Century (Harlow, 1991), 221.
11. Wm. Roger Louis and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Decolonization', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 22, 3 (Sept. 1994), 462-513.
12. Cranford Pratt, 'Colonial Governments and the Transfer of Power in East Africa', in Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis (eds.), The Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization 1940-1960 (New Haven, 1982), 249.
13. David M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds.), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); Thomas R. Mockaitis, British Counterinsurgency, 1919-60 (London, 1990); Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operations: Techniques of Guerrilla Warfare (New York, 1967), 83-113; and Charles Townshend, Britain's Civil Wars: Counterinsurgency in the Twentieth Century (London, 1986).
14. David M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds.), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); Thomas R. Mockaitis, British Counterinsurgency, 1919-60 (London, 1990); Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operations: Techniques of Guerrilla Warfare (New York, 1967), 83-113; and Charles Townshend, Britain's Civil Wars: Counterinsurgency in the Twentieth Century (London, 1986).
15. David M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds.), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); Thomas R. Mockaitis, British Counterinsurgency, 1919-60 (London, 1990); Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operations: Techniques of Guerrilla Warfare (New York, 1967), 83-113; and Charles Townshend, Britain's Civil Wars: Counterinsurgency in the Twentieth Century (London, 1986).
16. David M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds.), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); Thomas R. Mockaitis, British Counterinsurgency, 1919-60 (London, 1990); Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operations: Techniques of Guerrilla Warfare (New York, 1967), 83-113; and Charles Townshend, Britain's Civil Wars: Counterinsurgency in the Twentieth Century (London, 1986).
17. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
18. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
19. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
20. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
21. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
22. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
23. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
24. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
25. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
26. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
27. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
28. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
29. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
30. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
31. For the background and course of the Mau Mau Emergency and decolonization in Kenya see: George Bennett and Carl Rosberg, The Kenyatta Election: Kenya 1960-1961 (London, 1961); Bennett, Kenya: A Political History. The Colonial Period (London, 1963); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990); Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa Two Books (London, 1992); Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (London, 1990); Frank Füredi, The Mau Mau War in Perspective (London, 1989); idem, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (London, 1994); Randall W. Heather, 'Intelligence and Counter-insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56, Intelligence and National Security, 5, 3 (1990), 57-83; Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau 1905-63 (London, 1987); Keith Kyle, The Politics of the Independence of Kenya (London, 1999); Wunyabari O. Maloba, Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt (London, 1998 [1993]); Bethwell Ogot and Tiyambe Zeleza, 'Kenya: The Road to Independence and After', in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960-1980 (New Haven, 1988), 401-26; B.A. Ogot and W.R. Ochieng' (eds.), Decolonization and Independence in Kenya 1940-93 (London, 1995); David Throup, Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau 1945-53 (London, 1987); Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1998).
32. For example: Mockaitis, 64-5; Füredi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through counter-insurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Johnman, and W. Scott Lucas (eds.), Contemporary British History, 1931-1961: Politics and the Limits of Policy (London, 1991), 141-68; idem, 'Creating a Breathing Space: The Political Management of Colonial Emergencies', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 21, 3 (1993), 89-106; and idem, Colonial Wars. The reluctance of the Colonial Office to agree to the proclamation of a state of emergency, let alone commit British troops, and the three-year gap between the apparent military defeat of Mau Mau and acceptance that African majority government would have to be conceded, raises doubts about such interpretations. See: David A. Percox, 'British Counter-Insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56: Extension of Internal Security Policy or Prelude to Decolonisation?', Small Wars and Insurgencies, 9, 3 (1998), 46-101.
33. For example: Mockaitis, 64-5; Füredi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through counter-insurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Johnman, and W. Scott Lucas (eds.), Contemporary British History, 1931-1961: Politics and the Limits of Policy (London, 1991), 141-68; idem, 'Creating a Breathing Space: The Political Management of Colonial Emergencies', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 21, 3 (1993), 89-106; and idem, Colonial Wars. The reluctance of the Colonial Office to agree to the proclamation of a state of emergency, let alone commit British troops, and the three-year gap between the apparent military defeat of Mau Mau and acceptance that African majority government would have to be conceded, raises doubts about such interpretations. See: David A. Percox, 'British Counter-Insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56: Extension of Internal Security Policy or Prelude to Decolonisation?', Small Wars and Insurgencies, 9, 3 (1998), 46-101.
34. For example: Mockaitis, 64-5; Füredi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through counter-insurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Johnman, and W. Scott Lucas (eds.), Contemporary British History, 1931-1961: Politics and the Limits of Policy (London, 1991), 141-68; idem, 'Creating a Breathing Space: The Political Management of Colonial Emergencies', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 21, 3 (1993), 89-106; and idem, Colonial Wars. The reluctance of the Colonial Office to agree to the proclamation of a state of emergency, let alone commit British troops, and the three-year gap between the apparent military defeat of Mau Mau and acceptance that African majority government would have to be conceded, raises doubts about such interpretations. See: David A. Percox, 'British Counter-Insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56: Extension of Internal Security Policy or Prelude to Decolonisation?', Small Wars and Insurgencies, 9, 3 (1998), 46-101.
35. For example: Mockaitis, 64-5; Füredi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through counter-insurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Johnman, and W. Scott Lucas (eds.), Contemporary British History, 1931-1961: Politics and the Limits of Policy (London, 1991), 141-68; idem, 'Creating a Breathing Space: The Political Management of Colonial Emergencies', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 21, 3 (1993), 89-106; and idem, Colonial Wars. The reluctance of the Colonial Office to agree to the proclamation of a state of emergency, let alone commit British troops, and the three-year gap between the apparent military defeat of Mau Mau and acceptance that African majority government would have to be conceded, raises doubts about such interpretations. See: David A. Percox, 'British Counter-Insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56: Extension of Internal Security Policy or Prelude to Decolonisation?', Small Wars and Insurgencies, 9, 3 (1998), 46-101.
36. For example: Mockaitis, 64-5; Füredi, 'Kenya: Decolonization through counter-insurgency', in A. Gorst, L. Johnman, and W. Scott Lucas (eds.), Contemporary British History, 1931-1961: Politics and the Limits of Policy (London, 1991), 141-68; idem, 'Creating a Breathing Space: The Political Management of Colonial Emergencies', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 21, 3 (1993), 89-106; and idem, Colonial Wars. The reluctance of the Colonial Office to agree to the proclamation of a state of emergency, let alone commit British troops, and the three-year gap between the apparent military defeat of Mau Mau and acceptance that African majority government would have to be conceded, raises doubts about such interpretations. See: David A. Percox, 'British Counter-Insurgency in Kenya, 1952-56: Extension of Internal Security Policy or Prelude to Decolonisation?', Small Wars and Insurgencies, 9, 3 (1998), 46-101.
37. Keith Kyle, 'The End of Empire in Kenya', University of London, Institute of Commonwealth Studies Postgraduate Seminar Paper, 14 March 1996, [courtesy of the ICS]; Philip Murphy, Party Politics and Decolonization: The Conservative Party and British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa, 1951-1964 (Oxford, 1995), '"Holding Back the Tides"? Alan Lennox-Boyd at the Colonial Office, 1954-59', University of London, ICS PG Seminar Paper, 28 March 1996, [courtesy of the ICS].
38. Keith Kyle, 'The End of Empire in Kenya', University of London, Institute of Commonwealth Studies Postgraduate Seminar Paper, 14 March 1996, [courtesy of the ICS]; Philip Murphy, Party Politics and Decolonization: The Conservative Party and British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa, 1951-1964 (Oxford, 1995), '"Holding Back the Tides"? Alan Lennox-Boyd at the Colonial Office, 1954-59', University of London, ICS PG Seminar Paper, 28 March 1996, [courtesy of the ICS].
39. Keith Kyle, 'The End of Empire in Kenya', University of London, Institute of Commonwealth Studies Postgraduate Seminar Paper, 14 March 1996, [courtesy of the ICS]; Philip Murphy, Party Politics and Decolonization: The Conservative Party and British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa, 1951-1964 (Oxford, 1995), '"Holding Back the Tides"? Alan Lennox-Boyd at the Colonial Office, 1954-59', University of London, ICS PG Seminar Paper, 28 March 1996, [courtesy of the ICS].
40. For an excellent recent study see: Kyle, Independence of Kenya.
41. W.L. Gorell Barnes (Colonial Office) to A.D. Peck (Treasury), 11 May 1959, DEFE 7/1014. Unless otherwise stated, all documents were consulted at the Public Record Office, Kew (PRO).
42. War Council Minute 1594, 'Appreciation of the Situation by the Commander-in-Chief East Africa', n.d. (c. Dec. 1955), CO 822/772, PRO.
43. 'Note on the Kenya War Council's Views on the Future Role of the Security Forces', n.d. (c. Jan. 1956), CO 822/772. See also: David Throup, 'Crime, politics and the police in colonial Kenya, 1939-63', in Anderson and Killingray, 149.
44. Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 28 Jan. 1956, CO 822/772.
45. 'Note on the Kenya War Council's Views on the Future Role of the Security Forces', n.d. (c. Jan. 1956), CO 822/772.
46. CM (57) 140, 'War Council Business, 1st March, 1957 to the 30th April, 1957', 2 May 1957, CO 822/1255. One of the problems, for example, was that 'only about 30 percent of members of the Kenya Regiment were at present fulfilling their statutory duties ...'
47. SC 58. 'Protection of Vulnerable Points', memo. by A.C.C. Swann (Minister for Internal Security and Defence, Nairobi), 21 March 1959, CO 822/1306.
48. S/C/MIN 220, n.d. (c. March 1959), CO 822/1306. See also: hand-written Colonial Office minute by D.J. Dunn, 27 March 1958, CO 822/1306.
49. WAR/C 817, 'Emergency Policy', 12 Dec. 1955, CO 822/772.
50. Füredi, Mau Mau War, 149-224; Monone Omosule, 'Kiama kia Muingi: Kikuyu Reaction to Land Consolidation in Kenya, 1955-1959', Transafrican Journal of History, 4, 1-2 (1974), 115-34.
51. Füredi, Mau Mau War, 149-224; Monone Omosule, 'Kiama kia Muingi: Kikuyu Reaction to Land Consolidation in Kenya, 1955-1959', Transafrican Journal of History, 4, 1-2 (1974), 115-34.
52. WAR/C 1105. The Colony Internal Security Scheme' memo. by the ISWC, 21 Feb. 1958, CO 822/1306. For the pre-Emergency internal security scheme see: Percox, 50-9.
53. WAR/C 1105, CO 822/1306; Bennett, 141.
54. I am grateful to Dr David Anderson for this information.
55. Annex A to WAR/C 1105, 'Kenya Colony Internal Security Scheme', CO 822/1306.
56. WAR/C 1105, para. 10, CO 822/1306.
57. SC 44, 'Security in Urban Areas', memo. by N.F. Harris (European Minister without Portfolio, Nairobi), 9 Dec. 1958, CO 822/1306.
58. S/C/MIN 156, 'Security in Urban Areas', n.d. (c. 22 Dec. 1958), CO 822/1306.
59. David Goldsworthy, Tom Mboya: The Man Kenya Wanted to Forget (Nairobi, London, New York, 1982), 135-9; Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 108.
60. David Goldsworthy, Tom Mboya: The Man Kenya Wanted to Forget (Nairobi, London, New York, 1982), 135-9; Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 108.
61. SC (60) 18, 'Civil Disobedience', memo. by the ISWC, 12 May 1960, CO 822/2024.
62. Bennett, 152; Goldsworthy, 137-46; Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 108, 115-8; Murphy, 'Lennox-Boyd', 7.
63. Bennett, 152; Goldsworthy, 137-46; Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 108, 115-8; Murphy, 'Lennox-Boyd', 7.
64. SC (60) 18, 'Civil Disobedience', extract from minutes of the Security Council, 31 May 1960, CO 822/2024.
65. 'Mau Mau Oathing in Meru District', memo. by the Office of the Director of Intelligence and Security, 24 Jan. 1958, CO 822/1254.
66. EMER 45/77/1A/253, E.W.M. Magor (Ministry of Defence, Nairobi) to J.L.F. Buist (Colonial Office), 24 April 1957, Annex to WAR/C 1047, 'A Review of the Security Situation in Nyanza Province', by the KIC, n.d. (c. April 1957), CO 822/1278.
67. Annex to WAR/C 1047, CO 822/1278. Emphasis added.
68. By April 1958, there were less than 15,000 detainees, the release rate being about 1,000 per month, Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 8 April 1958, CO 822/1252.
69. CM (58) 83, 'WarCouncil Business, 4th Dec., 1957 to the 4th March', 13 March 1958, CO 822/1255.
70. Private information.
71. C.S. Roberts (Colonial Office) to E.N. Griffith-Jones (Member for Legal Affairs, Nairobi), 17 Jan. 1958, CO 822/1346.
72. Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 8 April 1958, CO 822/1252.
73. Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 2 April 1958, Lennox-Boyd to Baring, 6 May 1958, CO 822/1347. The apparent emergence of KKM from the so-called Mau Mau 'passive wing' in Embu and Nairobi and the adjoining Reserve had been discovered in March 1955. As a measure of how seriously it was at first taken, the movement was not proscribed until Jan. 1958, telegram 1041, F. Crawford (Deputy Governor, Kenya) to Lennox-Boyd, 16 Sept. 1955, Annex to WAR/C 731, 'Kiama Kia Muingi', report by the KIC, n.d. (c. 6 June 1955), CO 822/789; telegram 32, R.G. Turnbull (Chief Secretary, Nairobi) to Lennox-Boyd, 13 Jan. 1958, CO 822/1346. This belated response was again a function of changing intelligence appreciations and, more importantly, an apparent desire not to be too 'heavy handed'. This, in itself, was a security expedient, aimed at avoiding unnecessary antagonization of Africans and the consequent potential for political disaffection and its attendant difficulties. See also: Füredi. Mau Mau War, 149-224.
74. Telegram 386, Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 19 May 1958, Annex to SC5, 'Kiama Kia Muingi', report by M.C. Manby (Director of Intelligence and Security, Nairobi), 20 May 1958, KIC (FINAL) 4/58, 'Kiama Kia Muingi', report by the KIC, 25 June 1958, W.F. Coutts (Chief Secretary, Nairobi) to Baring, 5 July 1958, CO 822/1346.
75. KIC (FINAL) 2/58, 'Kiama Kia Muingi', report by the KIC, 10 Jan. 1958, CO 822/1346.
76. Coutts to Baring, 5 July 1958. CO 822/1346. 'From the evidence available it would appear that Mau Mau has never been eliminated. There is no requirement for troops at the present stage but should the growth of the society out-run the efforts of the Security Forces, military assistance might be required in about three months time', Maj. GSO 2 (INT) to Maj.-Gen. Sir N. Tapp, GOC, East Africa Command, 2 May 1958, WO 276/375, PRO.
77. 'Extract from KIC Appreciation No. 9/5 for period 1-31.8.58', CO 822/1346. See also: 'Review of the Business of the Security Council Advisory to the Governor up to the end of July 1958', 7 Aug. 1958, CO 822/1255.
78. Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 4 Sept. 1958, 'Extract from KIC Appreciation No. 10/58 for period 1-30.9.58', CO 822/1346.
79. Security Council Minute 150, Dec. 1958, GH 1953/5/17.VI/, Baring to C.M. Johnston (Minister for African Affairs, Nairobi), 23 Dec. 1958, CO 822/1346.
80. Kanogo, 162-78; Füredi, Mau Mau War, 155-204.
81. Füredi, Mau Mau War, 193.
82. Telegram 107, Renison to Macleod, 1 Feb. 1961, telegram CAPCOS 3, C-in-C, HQ British Forces Arabian Peninsula, to Admiral of the Fleet Earl Mountbatten of Burma, the Chief of the Defence Staff, 4 Feb. 1961, telegrams 982/OPS, Force Nairobi to War Office (MO 4), 'OP PROPHESY Sitrep 1', 13 Feb. 1961, 229/OPS, 'Sitrep 2', 20 Feb. 1961, 468/OPS. 'Sitrep 3', 27 Feb. 1961, 704/OPS, 'Sitrep 4', 3 March 1961, CO 822/2024.
83. KIC/K/7 (14) 'The Kenya Land Freedom Army', appreciation by the KIC, 21 July 1961, and attachment to KIC/K/7 (14), 'A Note on the Kenya Land Freedom Army', July 1961, CO 822/2114. See also: Box 2, File 3, 93-8, M.C. Manby papers, MSS Afr s 2159, Rhodes House Library, Oxford.
84. KIC/K/7 (14) 'The Kenya Land Freedom Army', appreciation by the KIC, 21 July 1961, and attachment to KIC/K/7 (14), 'A Note on the Kenya Land Freedom Army', July 1961, CO 822/2114. See also: Box 2, File 3, 93-8, M.C. Manby papers, MSS Afr s 2159, Rhodes House Library, Oxford.
85. CM (61) 559, 'The Kenya Land Freedom Army', memo. by Swann, 28 July 1961, CO 822/2114.
86. Kyle, 'End of Empire', 13.
87. CM (61) 559, CO 822/2114.
88. 'Subversive Tendencies Among the Kikuyu: A Review of the Period 1st Feb. - 22nd Sept. 1962', report by Manby, 27 Sept. 1962, CMM (62) 258, 'Kenya Land Freedom Army', memo. by Swann, 28 Sept. 1962, CO 822/2114. See also: Box 2, File 3, 108-23, MSS Afr s 2159.
89. 'Subversive Tendencies Among the Kikuyu: A Review of the Period 1st Feb. - 22nd Sept. 1962', report by Manby, 27 Sept. 1962, CMM (62) 258, 'Kenya Land Freedom Army', memo. by Swann, 28 Sept. 1962, CO 822/2114. See also: Box 2, File 3, 108-23, MSS Afr s 2159.
90. Bennett, 157.
91. 'Extracts from the Minutes of the 44th Meeting of the Kenya Council of Ministers', 4 Oct. 1962, telegram 714, Renison to Sandys, 24 Oct. 1962, CO 822/2114.
92. Brief for Macmillan, by Thorneycroft, 7 March 1963, PREM 11/4328, PRO.
93. Throup, 'Crime, politics and the police', 149.
94. 'Brief for the Secretary of State's Visit to Kenya, 1957', n.d. (c. Oct. 1957), CO 822/1229.
95. Throup, 'Crime, politics and the police', 150-1.
96. 'Brief', CO 822/1229.
97. GH 35/5/39/Vol.II, Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 27 Feb. 1957, GH 1953/5/39/Vol.II, Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 10 April 1957, Lennox-Boyd to Baring, 20 May 1957, CO 822/1252; Bennett, 141-2.
98. Bennett, 141-2; Ogot and Zeleza, 410.
99. Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 81-2; Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 577, 7 Nov. 1957, col. 334, cited in Phillip Darby, British Defence Policy East of Suez 1947-1968 (London, 1973), 125.
100. Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 81-2; Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 577, 7 Nov. 1957, col. 334, cited in Phillip Darby, British Defence Policy East of Suez 1947-1968 (London, 1973), 125.
101. Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 81-2; Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 577, 7 Nov. 1957, col. 334, cited in Phillip Darby, British Defence Policy East of Suez 1947-1968 (London, 1973), 125.
102. CP (55) 97,'Singapore Constitutional Crisis', memo. by Henry Hopkinson (Minister of State for Colonial Affairs), 10 Aug. 1955, CAB 129/76, cited in Murphy, 'Lennox-Boyd', 3; Dennis Austin, 'The Transfer of Power: Why and How', in W.H. Morris-Jones and Georges Fischer (eds.), Decolonisation and After: The British and French Experience (London, 1980), 29.
103. CP (55) 97,'Singapore Constitutional Crisis', memo. by Henry Hopkinson (Minister of State for Colonial Affairs), 10 Aug. 1955, CAB 129/76, cited in Murphy, 'Lennox-Boyd', 3; Dennis Austin, 'The Transfer of Power: Why and How', in W.H. Morris-Jones and Georges Fischer (eds.), Decolonisation and After: The British and French Experience (London, 1980), 29.
104. CP (55) 97,'Singapore Constitutional Crisis', memo. by Henry Hopkinson (Minister of State for Colonial Affairs), 10 Aug. 1955, CAB 129/76, cited in Murphy, 'Lennox-Boyd', 3; Dennis Austin, 'The Transfer of Power: Why and How', in W.H. Morris-Jones and Georges Fischer (eds.), Decolonisation and After: The British and French Experience (London, 1980), 29.
105. 'Extract from "Kenya Calling"', 25 July 1959, CO 822/1348.
106. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation, 244-69, 'British Decolonization', 202-5; Holland, European Decolonization, 241-2: Lapping, 435: B.A. Ogot, 'The Decisive Years 1956-63', in Ogot and Ochieng', 54-61.
107. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation, 244-69, 'British Decolonization', 202-5; Holland, European Decolonization, 241-2: Lapping, 435: B.A. Ogot, 'The Decisive Years 1956-63', in Ogot and Ochieng', 54-61.
108. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation, 244-69, 'British Decolonization', 202-5; Holland, European Decolonization, 241-2: Lapping, 435: B.A. Ogot, 'The Decisive Years 1956-63', in Ogot and Ochieng', 54-61.
109. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation, 244-69, 'British Decolonization', 202-5; Holland, European Decolonization, 241-2: Lapping, 435: B.A. Ogot, 'The Decisive Years 1956-63', in Ogot and Ochieng', 54-61.
110. CC (59) 33rd Conclusions, 4 June 1959, CAB 128/33; C (59) 92, 'Hola Detention Camp', memorandum by Perth (Minister of State for Colonial Affairs), 2 June 1959, CAB 129/97, PRO: Edgerton, 173-201; Alistair Horne, Harold Macmillan. Volume II: 1957-1986 (New York, 1989), 174-6, 182; Maloba, 142-3, 150, 155-6; Anthony Sampson, Macmillan: A Study in Ambiguity (London, 1967), 155; Townshend, 205, 207: John Turner, Macmillan (Harlow, 1994), 187-8.
111. CC (59) 33rd Conclusions, 4 June 1959, CAB 128/33; C (59) 92, 'Hola Detention Camp', memorandum by Perth (Minister of State for Colonial Affairs), 2 June 1959, CAB 129/97, PRO: Edgerton, 173-201; Alistair Horne, Harold Macmillan. Volume II: 1957-1986 (New York, 1989), 174-6, 182; Maloba, 142-3, 150, 155-6; Anthony Sampson, Macmillan: A Study in Ambiguity (London, 1967), 155; Townshend, 205, 207: John Turner, Macmillan (Harlow, 1994), 187-8.
112. CC (59) 33rd Conclusions, 4 June 1959, CAB 128/33; C (59) 92, 'Hola Detention Camp', memorandum by Perth (Minister of State for Colonial Affairs), 2 June 1959, CAB 129/97, PRO: Edgerton, 173-201; Alistair Horne, Harold Macmillan. Volume II: 1957-1986 (New York, 1989), 174-6, 182; Maloba, 142-3, 150, 155-6; Anthony Sampson, Macmillan: A Study in Ambiguity (London, 1967), 155; Townshend, 205, 207: John Turner, Macmillan (Harlow, 1994), 187-8.
113. CC (59) 33rd Conclusions, 4 June 1959, CAB 128/33; C (59) 92, 'Hola Detention Camp', memorandum by Perth (Minister of State for Colonial Affairs), 2 June 1959, CAB 129/97, PRO: Edgerton, 173-201; Alistair Horne, Harold Macmillan. Volume II: 1957-1986 (New York, 1989), 174-6, 182; Maloba, 142-3, 150, 155-6; Anthony Sampson, Macmillan: A Study in Ambiguity (London, 1967), 155; Townshend, 205, 207: John Turner, Macmillan (Harlow, 1994), 187-8.
114. Bennett, 144; Lennox-Boyd to Baring, 26 March 1959, CO 822/1861, cited in Murphy, 'Lennox-Boyd', 6. See also: Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd: A Biography (London, 1999), 213.
115. Bennett, 144; Lennox-Boyd to Baring, 26 March 1959, CO 822/1861, cited in Murphy, 'Lennox-Boyd', 6. See also: Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd: A Biography (London, 1999), 213.
116. Murphy, Party Politics, 179.
117. Baring to Lennox-Boyd, 28 Sept. 1959, CO 822/1230. See also: telegram 934, Griffith-Jones to F.D. Webber (Colonial Office), 17 Sept. 1959, CO 822/1230.
118. CA (56) 18 'Powers of Colonial Governors to Preserve Order. Note by the Lord President of the Council', 16 May 1956, CAB 134/1202.
119. CA (56) 33rd Conclusions, 23 July 1956, CAB 134/1201, CA (56) 21, 'Powers of Colonial Governors to Preserve Order', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, 31 May 1956, CAB 134/1202. Lennox-Boyd had earlier experience of the problems referred to by Salisbury. In July 1955 the governor of Cyprus, Sir Robert Armitage, had pressed the colonial secretary to allow him to declare a state of emergency in order to deal with the Greek-Cypriot EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kuprion Agoniston - National Organization of Cypriot Fighters) insurgents. But this might prejudice forthcoming negotiations with the Greek and Turkish governments over the future of the island, as well as being seen to be a prejudicial act in itself. The London negotiations and subsequent talks broke down over a combination of issues, including self-determination for the island, Enosis (union with Greece), and the complexities surrounding Britain's relationship with Turkey in the Baghdad Pact. Only following the replacement of Armitage by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, with experience of counter-insurgency in Malaya and Kenya, and the clear lack of either ability or desire of the police to restore order did the British Cabinet accept that a state of emergency should be declared, as occurred on 26 Nov. 1955, Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 114-23, David M. Anderson, 'Policing and communal conflict: the Cyprus Emergency, 1954-60'. in Anderson and Killingray, 187-98.
120. CA (56) 33rd Conclusions, 23 July 1956, CAB 134/1201, CA (56) 21, 'Powers of Colonial Governors to Preserve Order', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, 31 May 1956, CAB 134/1202. Lennox-Boyd had earlier experience of the problems referred to by Salisbury. In July 1955 the governor of Cyprus, Sir Robert Armitage, had pressed the colonial secretary to allow him to declare a state of emergency in order to deal with the Greek-Cypriot EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kuprion Agoniston - National Organization of Cypriot Fighters) insurgents. But this might prejudice forthcoming negotiations with the Greek and Turkish governments over the future of the island, as well as being seen to be a prejudicial act in itself. The London negotiations and subsequent talks broke down over a combination of issues, including self-determination for the island, Enosis (union with Greece), and the complexities surrounding Britain's relationship with Turkey in the Baghdad Pact. Only following the replacement of Armitage by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, with experience of counter-insurgency in Malaya and Kenya, and the clear lack of either ability or desire of the police to restore order did the British Cabinet accept that a state of emergency should be declared, as occurred on 26 Nov. 1955, Murphy, Alan Lennox-Boyd, 114-23, David M. Anderson, 'Policing and communal conflict: the Cyprus Emergency, 1954-60'. in Anderson and Killingray, 187-98.
121. CPC (57) 38, 'Powers of Colonial Governors to Preserve Order', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, 20 Dec. 1957, CAB 134/1556. See also note 39 (above).
122. CPC (59) 5, 'Security Powers of Colonial Governors', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, 9 June 1959, CAB 134/1558.
123. CPC (59) 2nd Meeting, 18 June 1959, CAB 134/1558.
124. CPC (59) 3rd Meeting, 1 July 1959, CAB 134/1558.
125. The 'Fairn Committee' was appointed by Macmillan in the wake of Hola, Edgerton, 198-9; Report of the Committee on Emergency Detention Camps Special
126. Telegram 1054, Renison to W.B.L. Monson (Colonial Office), 26 Oct. 1959, CO 822/1230.
127. CPC (59) 5th Meeting, 5 Nov. 1959, CAB 134/1558.
128. CPC (59) 19, 'Kenya: Proposed Act of Grace', memo. by Macleod, 3 Nov. 1959, CAB 134/1558.
129. Griffith-Jones to Webber, 17 Sept. 1959, CO 822/1230.
130. 'Future Policy in East Africa', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, n.d. (c. Jan. 1959), CO 822/1819; Sir Michael Blundell, So Rough a Wind: The Kenya Memoirs of Sir Michael Blundell (London, 1964), 261-2; Charles Douglas-Home, Evelyn Baring: The Last Proconsul (London, 1978), 283-4.
131. 'Future Policy in East Africa', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, n.d. (c. Jan. 1959), CO 822/1819; Sir Michael Blundell, So Rough a Wind: The Kenya Memoirs of Sir Michael Blundell (London, 1964), 261-2; Charles Douglas-Home, Evelyn Baring: The Last Proconsul (London, 1978), 283-4.
132. 'Future Policy in East Africa', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, n.d. (c. Jan. 1959), CO 822/1819; Sir Michael Blundell, So Rough a Wind: The Kenya Memoirs of Sir Michael Blundell (London, 1964), 261-2; Charles Douglas-Home, Evelyn Baring: The Last Proconsul (London, 1978), 283-4.
133. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation, 244-69, 'British Decolonization', 202-5; Holland, European Decolonization, 241-2; Lapping, 435.
134. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation, 244-69, 'British Decolonization', 202-5; Holland, European Decolonization, 241-2; Lapping, 435.
135. Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation, 244-69, 'British Decolonization', 202-5; Holland, European Decolonization, 241-2; Lapping, 435.
136. Speech by Renison to Legislative Council, 10 Nov. 1959, CO 822/1230.
137. See, for example, comments relating to the need to exercise controls over the alleged Mau Mau managers Peter Koinange, Mouria, and Murumbi (in terms which would have applied equally to Kenyatta and others) in CO 822/2091.
138. This difficulty arose primarily from the practice of each of the three territories being responsible for its share of the EALFO estimates, which meant that there were three separate, if not too dissimilar, and competing sources of revenue. There were often difficulties because one or another, if not all, of the territories could not find its full share.
139. See; CO 968/593, CO 968/594, and CO 968/595.
140. Murphy, Party Politics, 181; CPC (59) 2, 'Future Policy in East Africa', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, f. 8, para. 15, 10 April 1959, CAB 134/1558.
141. Murphy, Party Politics, 181; CPC (59) 2, 'Future Policy in East Africa', memo. by Lennox-Boyd, f. 8, para. 15, 10 April 1959, CAB 134/1558.
142. CC (60) 1st Conclusions, 4 Jan. 1960, CAB 128/34.
143. CC (60) 2nd Conclusions, 18 Jan. 1960, CAB 128/34.
144. CC (60) 11th Conclusions, 22 Feb. 1960, CAB 128/34.
145. Blundell, 261-2; Douglas-Home, 283-4.
146. Gorell Barnes to Baring, 25 March 1959, CO 968/696.
147. Gorell Barnes to Peck, 11 May 1959. DEFE 7/1014.
148. CPC (62) 3, 'Kenya Constitutional Conference', memo. by Maudling, 30 Jan. 1962, CAB 134/1561; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 9. and Independence of Kenya, 143-4.
149. CPC (62) 3, 'Kenya Constitutional Conference', memo. by Maudling, 30 Jan. 1962, CAB 134/1561; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 9. and Independence of Kenya, 143-4.
150. CPC (62) 3, 'Kenya Constitutional Conference', memo. by Maudling, 30 Jan. 1962, CAB 134/1561; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 9. and Independence of Kenya, 143-4.
151. For detail's see: CO 822/2892 and DEFE 13/297.
152. Macleod to Harold Watkinson (Minister of Defence), 16 Dec. 1960, Hobkirk (MoD) to P.J. Kitcatt (Colonial Office), 21 Dec. 1960, 'Kenya: Service Building Programme', draft brief (for Cabinet Defence Committee) by Hobkirk, 4 Jan. 1961, telegram 20, Renison to Monson (CO), 14 Feb. 1962, CO 822/2892.
153. Brief for Macmillan, by M. Cary, 1 Feb. 1962, f. 7, PREM 11/3856; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 15-6, and Independence of Kenya, 143-4.
154. Brief for Macmillan, by M. Cary, 1 Feb. 1962, f. 7, PREM 11/3856; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 15-6, and Independence of Kenya, 143-4.
155. Brief for Macmillan, by M. Cary, 1 Feb. 1962, f. 7, PREM 11/3856; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 15-6, and Independence of Kenya, 143-4.
156. Teleeram 338, MacDonald to Sandys, 8 June 1963, CO 822/3053.
157. 'Extract from East African Defence Committee Minutes of 25th Meeting', 9 May 1963, CO 822/3053.
158. This followed an earlier decision that a Kenya government official should replace the European Minister without Portfolio as Chairman of the Economic Priorities Committee, thereby removing the possibility of external political interference with the post, 'Minutes of 2nd Meeting of the Security Council Advisory to the Governor', 2 Feb. 1961, CO 822/2024.
159. MacDonald to Sandys, 8 June 1963, CO 822/3053. On the ability of KLFA leaders to evade arrest and of the organization to resume activities after arrests see, for example: CMM (63) 36, 'Council of Ministers, Law and Order Report No.7' memo. by Swann, 19 Jan. 1963, CO 822/3053.
160. CC (63) 41st Conclusions, 24 June 1963, CAB 128/37; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 24-6.
161. CC (63) 41st Conclusions, 24 June 1963, CAB 128/37; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 24-6.
162. CMM (63) 36, 'Law and Order Report No.7', 19 Jan. 1963, CO 822/3053; Füredi, Mau Mau War, 188-9.
163. CMM (63) 36, 'Law and Order Report No.7', 19 Jan. 1963, CO 822/3053; Füredi, Mau Mau War, 188-9.
164. Brief for R.A.B. Butler (First Secretary of State), by Burke Trend, 11 Oct. 1963, PREM 11/4328; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 26-7.
165. Brief for R.A.B. Butler (First Secretary of State), by Burke Trend, 11 Oct. 1963, PREM 11/4328; Kyle, 'End of Empire', 26-7.
166. CC (63) 60th Conclusions, 15 Oct. 1963, CAB 128/37.
167. Telegram 575, Griffith-Jones to Webber, 11 Oct. 1963, CO 822/3053. Stage 1: the period up to independence. Stage 2: the period between independence and the departure of British troops.
168. DOP (63) 1st Meeting, minutes of the Cabinet Defence and Oversea Policy Committee, 18 Oct. 1963, CAB 148/15.
169. DOP (63) 1st Meeting, 18 Oct. 1963, CAB 148/15; OPERATIONAL IMMEDIATE, UK EYES ONLY Telegram COSMID 99, Exclusive, from Mountbatten to Lt.-Gen. Sir Charles Harington (C-in-C, Middle East Command), 18 Oct. 1963, CO 822/3054.
170. Telegram 721, Griffith-Jones to Sandys, 24 Oct. 1963, CO 822/3053.
171. Telegram 946, MacDonald to Sandys, 6 Dec. 1963, CO 822/3055.
172. Thorneycroft to Douglas-Home, 19 Dec. 1963, PREM 11/4889.
173. Kyle, Independence of Kenya, 204.