Christian critics of empire: Missionaries, lantern lectures, and the Congo reform campaign in Britain

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 27-58

  Grant, Kevin ^a  

^a HAMILTON COLLEGE   (United States)

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EID: 0035625657     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086530108583118     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. The above sequence of events is conveyed in the following correspondence: Alice Harris to Mons. Van Calcken, 15 May 1904, Mss. Brit. Emp. S19, D5/10; John Harris to Dr Harry Guinness, 19 May 1904, Mss. Brit. Emp. S19, D5/9, Papers of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery and Aborigines' Protection Society, Rhodes House, Oxford University (hereafter Anti-Slavery Papers); Edgar Stannard to Dr Harry Guinness, 21 May 1904, reproduced in the appendix of E.D. Morel, King Leopold's Rule in Africa (London, 1904), 442-47. It is noteworthy that Alice Harris had only a basic knowledge of the local Mongo. She probably relied upon an African translator, perhaps drawn from her students at the mission's school.
2. John Harris to Dr Harry Guinness, 19 May 1904, Anti-Slavery Papers, Mss. Brit. Emp. S19, D5/9.
3. See, for example, Miles Taylor, 'Patriotism, History and the Left in Twentieth-Century Britain', Historical Journal, 33, 4 (1990), 971-87.
4. The following studies treat E.D. Morel as the driving force behind the Congo reform campaign in Britain. These same studies overlook or significantly underestimate the importance of missionaries in mobilizing support in Britain: Robert Wuliger, 'The Idea of Economic Imperialism, with special reference to the life and work of E.D. Morel' (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of London, 1953);
5. A.J.P. Taylor, The Troublemakers (London, 1957);
6. Ruth Slade, English-Speaking Missions in the Congo Independent State (1878-1908) (Bruxelles, 1959);
7. Wm. Roger Louis, 'The Triumph of the Congo Reform Movement, 1905-1908', in Jeffrey Butler (ed.), Boston University Papers on Africa, Vol. II (Boston, 1966);
8. Kinasley Nworah, 'Humanitarian Pressure-Groups and British Attitudes to West Africa, 1895-1915', (Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1966);
9. Wm. Roger Louis and Jean Stengers (eds), E.D. Morel's History of the Congo Reform Movement (Oxford, 1968);
10. S.J.S. Cookey, Britain and the Congo Question, 1885-1913 (London, 1968);
11. Bernard Porter, Critics of Empire (New York, 1968);
12. Catherine Anne Cline, E.D. Morel, 1873-1924: The Strategies of Protest (Belfast, 1980);
13. Jules Marchal, E.D. Morel contre Léopold II: L'Histoire du Congo, 1900-1910, Vols. 1 and 2 (Paris, 1996);
14. Adam Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost (Boston, 1998).
15. Richard Koebner and Helmut Dan Schmidt, Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word (Cambridge, 1964); Bernard Semmel, The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire (Baltimore, 1993).
16. Richard Koebner and Helmut Dan Schmidt, Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word (Cambridge, 1964); Bernard Semmel, The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire (Baltimore, 1993).
17. Regarding free trade politics, see Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism (Cambridge, 1970); Anthony Howe, Free Trade and Liberal England, 1846-1946 (Oxford, 1997); Frank Trentmann, 'The Strange Death of Free Trade: The Erosion of the "Liberal Consensus" in Britain, c. 1903-32', Eugenio Biagini (ed.), Citizenship and Community (Cambridge, 1996), 219-250.
18. Regarding free trade politics, see Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism (Cambridge, 1970); Anthony Howe, Free Trade and Liberal England, 1846-1946 (Oxford, 1997); Frank Trentmann, 'The Strange Death of Free Trade: The Erosion of the "Liberal Consensus" in Britain, c. 1903-32', Eugenio Biagini (ed.), Citizenship and Community (Cambridge, 1996), 219-250.
19. Regarding free trade politics, see Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism (Cambridge, 1970); Anthony Howe, Free Trade and Liberal England, 1846-1946 (Oxford, 1997); Frank Trentmann, 'The Strange Death of Free Trade: The Erosion of the "Liberal Consensus" in Britain, c. 1903-32', Eugenio Biagini (ed.), Citizenship and Community (Cambridge, 1996), 219-250.
20. Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness (Ithaca, 1988), 179-82; National Portrait Gallery, David Livingstone and the Victorian Encounter with Africa (London, 1996).
21. Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness (Ithaca, 1988), 179-82; National Portrait Gallery, David Livingstone and the Victorian Encounter with Africa (London, 1996).
22. Andrew Porter notes that British charitable giving to overseas missions was surpassed only by donations to education and church building. See Andrew Porter, 'Religion and Empire: British Expansion in the Long Nineteenth Century, 1780-1914', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 20, 3 (Sept. 1992), 370-90. Regarding nonconformity and politics, see Stephen Koss, Nonconformity in Modern British Politics (Hamden, 1975); David Bebbington, The Nonconformist Conscience: Chapel and Politics, 1870-1914 (London, 1982).
23. Andrew Porter notes that British charitable giving to overseas missions was surpassed only by donations to education and church building. See Andrew Porter, 'Religion and Empire: British Expansion in the Long Nineteenth Century, 1780-1914', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 20, 3 (Sept. 1992), 370-90. Regarding nonconformity and politics, see Stephen Koss, Nonconformity in Modern British Politics (Hamden, 1975); David Bebbington, The Nonconformist Conscience: Chapel and Politics, 1870-1914 (London, 1982).
24. Andrew Porter notes that British charitable giving to overseas missions was surpassed only by donations to education and church building. See Andrew Porter, 'Religion and Empire: British Expansion in the Long Nineteenth Century, 1780-1914', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 20, 3 (Sept. 1992), 370-90. Regarding nonconformity and politics, see Stephen Koss, Nonconformity in Modern British Politics (Hamden, 1975); David Bebbington, The Nonconformist Conscience: Chapel and Politics, 1870-1914 (London, 1982).
25. John MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire (Manchester, 1984), 32.
26. James Ryan, Picturing Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire (Chicago, 1997); Annie E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa (New Haven, 1994). Victorian missionaries were quick to bring the new, and cumbersome, technology of photography into the field. When, for example, David Livingstone made his expedition from the mouth of the Zambesi to Victoria Falls in 1858-63, he was accompanied by the photographic team of his brother, Charles, and Dr John Kirk. Although this pioneering photography was regarded as scientific, missionaries soon constructed overtly propagandistic images through studio sets and, with technological advancements, photographs taken 'on the spot' in Africa and around the world. For a discussion of photography and the Zambesi expedition, see James R. Ryan, Picturing Empire, 28-44. Also see David Killingray and Andrew Roberts, 'An Outline History of Photography in Africa to ca. 1940', History in Africa, 16 (1989), 197-208; Elizabeth Edwards, Anthropology & Photography, 1860-1920 (New Haven, 1992).
27. James Ryan, Picturing Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire (Chicago, 1997); Annie E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa (New Haven, 1994). Victorian missionaries were quick to bring the new, and cumbersome, technology of photography into the field. When, for example, David Livingstone made his expedition from the mouth of the Zambesi to Victoria Falls in 1858-63, he was accompanied by the photographic team of his brother, Charles, and Dr John Kirk. Although this pioneering photography was regarded as scientific, missionaries soon constructed overtly propagandistic images through studio sets and, with technological advancements, photographs taken 'on the spot' in Africa and around the world. For a discussion of photography and the Zambesi expedition, see James R. Ryan, Picturing Empire, 28-44. Also see David Killingray and Andrew Roberts, 'An Outline History of Photography in Africa to ca. 1940', History in Africa, 16 (1989), 197-208; Elizabeth Edwards, Anthropology & Photography, 1860-1920 (New Haven, 1992).
28. James Ryan, Picturing Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire (Chicago, 1997); Annie E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa (New Haven, 1994). Victorian missionaries were quick to bring the new, and cumbersome, technology of photography into the field. When, for example, David Livingstone made his expedition from the mouth of the Zambesi to Victoria Falls in 1858-63, he was accompanied by the photographic team of his brother, Charles, and Dr John Kirk. Although this pioneering photography was regarded as scientific, missionaries soon constructed overtly propagandistic images through studio sets and, with technological advancements, photographs taken 'on the spot' in Africa and around the world. For a discussion of photography and the Zambesi expedition, see James R. Ryan, Picturing Empire, 28-44. Also see David Killingray and Andrew Roberts, 'An Outline History of Photography in Africa to ca. 1940', History in Africa, 16 (1989), 197-208; Elizabeth Edwards, Anthropology & Photography, 1860-1920 (New Haven, 1992).
29. James Ryan, Picturing Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire (Chicago, 1997); Annie E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa (New Haven, 1994). Victorian missionaries were quick to bring the new, and cumbersome, technology of photography into the field. When, for example, David Livingstone made his expedition from the mouth of the Zambesi to Victoria Falls in 1858-63, he was accompanied by the photographic team of his brother, Charles, and Dr John Kirk. Although this pioneering photography was regarded as scientific, missionaries soon constructed overtly propagandistic images through studio sets and, with technological advancements, photographs taken 'on the spot' in Africa and around the world. For a discussion of photography and the Zambesi expedition, see James R. Ryan, Picturing Empire, 28-44. Also see David Killingray and Andrew Roberts, 'An Outline History of Photography in Africa to ca. 1940', History in Africa, 16 (1989), 197-208; Elizabeth Edwards, Anthropology & Photography, 1860-1920 (New Haven, 1992).
30. James Ryan, Picturing Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire (Chicago, 1997); Annie E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa (New Haven, 1994). Victorian missionaries were quick to bring the new, and cumbersome, technology of photography into the field. When, for example, David Livingstone made his expedition from the mouth of the Zambesi to Victoria Falls in 1858-63, he was accompanied by the photographic team of his brother, Charles, and Dr John Kirk. Although this pioneering photography was regarded as scientific, missionaries soon constructed overtly propagandistic images through studio sets and, with technological advancements, photographs taken 'on the spot' in Africa and around the world. For a discussion of photography and the Zambesi expedition, see James R. Ryan, Picturing Empire, 28-44. Also see David Killingray and Andrew Roberts, 'An Outline History of Photography in Africa to ca. 1940', History in Africa, 16 (1989), 197-208; Elizabeth Edwards, Anthropology & Photography, 1860-1920 (New Haven, 1992).
31. Ryan, Picturing Empire, 17.
32. I borrow the term 'evidential force' from Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography (New York, 1981), 88-89.
33. Samuel Clemens, King Leopold's Soliloquy (Orginally published by P.R. Warren & Co., Boston, 1905. Reprinted by T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1907), 65-66.
34. James Ryan provides a general discussion of the photograph's relation to particular imperial ideologies and political contexts. Ryan briefly addresses the work of the Reverend John and Alice Harris, acknowledging the need for further treatment of photography and humanitarian protest. See Ryan, Picturing Empire, 11-20, 222-24.
35. David Lagergren, Mission and State in the Congo (Uppsala, 1970); Roger Anstey, Britain and the Congo in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1962).
36. David Lagergren, Mission and State in the Congo (Uppsala, 1970); Roger Anstey, Britain and the Congo in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1962).
37. Suzanne Miers, 'Humanitarianism at Berlin: Myth or Reality?', in Stig Förster, Wolfgang Mommsen and Ronald Robinson (eds.), Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885 and the Onset of Partition (Oxford, 1988), 333-45. Also see Neal Ascherson, The King Incorporated (New York, 1964), and S.E. Crowe, The Berlin West Africa Conference, 1884-1885 (London, 1942).
38. Suzanne Miers, 'Humanitarianism at Berlin: Myth or Reality?', in Stig Förster, Wolfgang Mommsen and Ronald Robinson (eds.), Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885 and the Onset of Partition (Oxford, 1988), 333-45. Also see Neal Ascherson, The King Incorporated (New York, 1964), and S.E. Crowe, The Berlin West Africa Conference, 1884-1885 (London, 1942).
39. Suzanne Miers, 'Humanitarianism at Berlin: Myth or Reality?', in Stig Förster, Wolfgang Mommsen and Ronald Robinson (eds.), Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885 and the Onset of Partition (Oxford, 1988), 333-45. Also see Neal Ascherson, The King Incorporated (New York, 1964), and S.E. Crowe, The Berlin West Africa Conference, 1884-1885 (London, 1942).
40. Capt. Guy Burrows, The Curse of Central Africa (London, 1903), 205.
41. The stations of the Livingstone Inland Mission had been turned over to the American Baptist Missionary Union in 1884. The Congo Balolo Mission had then been established in 1888 by the same group of British missionaries and patrons who had organized the LIM.
42. In a related vein, Paul Lovejoy notes that missionaries were commonly reluctant to prioritize abolition over conversion in nineteenth-century Africa. See Paul Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 1993), 253-54.
43. Grenfell to Baynes, 23 June 1890, Baptist Missionary Society Archive, Angus Library, Regent's Park College, Oxford (hereafter BMS Papers), Grenfell and Baynes Correspondence, Box A19.
44. Grenfell to Baynes, 31 Aug. 1903, BMS Papers, Grenfell and Baynes Correspondence, Box A/20.
45. Jules Marchal, L'Etat Libre du Congo: Paradis Perdu. L'histoire du Congo, 1876-1900, 2 (Borgloon, 1996), 141-349; Samuel Nelson, Colonialism in the Congo Basin, 1880-1940 (Athens, 1994), 79-102.
46. Jules Marchal, L'Etat Libre du Congo: Paradis Perdu. L'histoire du Congo, 1876-1900, 2 (Borgloon, 1996), 141-349; Samuel Nelson, Colonialism in the Congo Basin, 1880-1940 (Athens, 1994), 79-102.
47. Lagergren, Mission and State, provides the most thorough discussion of the experiences and policies of the British missions, as well as the best overview of the various denominations and nationalities of Protestant missions on the Congo. Regarding conflicts and negotiations between the British missions and the Congo State, also see Kevin Grant, 'A Civilised Savagery: British Humanitarian Politics and European Imperialism in Africa, 1884-1926' (Ph.D. dissertation, U.C. Berkeley, 1997). For further discussion of American missions on the Congo, see Robert Benedetto (ed.), Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa (Leiden, 1996).
48. Lagergren, Mission and State, provides the most thorough discussion of the experiences and policies of the British missions, as well as the best overview of the various denominations and nationalities of Protestant missions on the Congo. Regarding conflicts and negotiations between the British missions and the Congo State, also see Kevin Grant, 'A Civilised Savagery: British Humanitarian Politics and European Imperialism in Africa, 1884-1926' (Ph.D. dissertation, U.C. Berkeley, 1997). For further discussion of American missions on the Congo, see Robert Benedetto (ed.), Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa (Leiden, 1996).
49. Lagergren, Mission and State, provides the most thorough discussion of the experiences and policies of the British missions, as well as the best overview of the various denominations and nationalities of Protestant missions on the Congo. Regarding conflicts and negotiations between the British missions and the Congo State, also see Kevin Grant, 'A Civilised Savagery: British Humanitarian Politics and European Imperialism in Africa, 1884-1926' (Ph.D. dissertation, U.C. Berkeley, 1997). For further discussion of American missions on the Congo, see Robert Benedetto (ed.), Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa (Leiden, 1996).
50. Robert Harms, 'The World ABIR Made: The Maringa-Lopori Basin, 1885-1903', African Economic History, 22 (1983), 125.
51. Marchal, E.D. Morel contre Léopold II, I, 192-202.
52. John Harris to Dr Harry Guinness, 20 March 1904, London School of Economics, E.D. Morel collection (hereafter Morel Papers), F8, File 74.
53. John Harris to Judge Bosco, 2 July 1904, Anti-Slavery Papers, Mss. Brit. Emp. S19, D5/10.
54. John Harris to F.B. Meyer, 20 Aug. 1904. Anti-Slavery Papers, Mss. Brit. Emp. S19, D5/10.
55. Grant, 'A Civilised Savagery', 47-49.
56. Accounts and Papers of the British Parliament, 1904, 62, Cd. 2097, 'Further Correspondence Respecting the Administration of the Independent State of the Congo', 16, 34.
57. Accounts and Papers of the British Parliament, 1904, 62, Cd. 2097, 'Further Correspondence Respecting the Administration of the Independent State of the Congo', 16, 34.
58. Alice Harris to Mons. Van Calcken, 15 May 1904, Anti-Slavery Papers, Mss. Brit. Emp. S19. D5/10.
59. Jean Stengers, 'Le rôle de la Commission d'Enquête de 1904-1905 au Congo', Annuaire de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales et Slaves, 10 (Bruxelles, 1950), 701-26.
60. John Harris to the Council of the CBM, 18 Dec. 1904, Anti-Slavery Papers, Mss. Brit. Emp., S19, D5/11.
61. Cookey, Britain and the Congo Question, 22-55; John Hope Franklin, George Washington Williams: A Biography (Chicago, 1985), 180-279; Felix Driver, 'Henry Morton Stanley and His Critics: Geography, Exploration and Empire', Past and Present, 133, (Nov. 1991), 134-66.
62. Cookey, Britain and the Congo Question, 22-55; John Hope Franklin, George Washington Williams: A Biography (Chicago, 1985), 180-279; Felix Driver, 'Henry Morton Stanley and His Critics: Geography, Exploration and Empire', Past and Present, 133, (Nov. 1991), 134-66.
63. Liverpool Daily Post, 4 April 1902.
64. For a summary of Morel's politics, see Paul Rich, Race and Empire in British Politics (Cambridge, 1986), 27-49.
65. Grant, 'A Civilised Savagery', 56-57.
66. Guinness marked his new alliance with Morel by publishing an article, 'The Congo Evil: How to Deal with It', in Morel's publication, West African Mail, 17 April 1903.
67. E.D. Morel to Alfred Emmott, 28 Jan. 1904, Morel Papers, F4, CRA, 1903-08.
68. Guinness to Morel, 2 Feb. 1904, Morel Papers, F4, CRA, 1903-1908.
69. Morel to Guinness, 5 Feb. 1904, cited in Slade, English-Speaking Missions, 280.
70. I am pleased to thank Professor Andrew Walls for informing me about Guinness' earlier work in the photography studio.
71. I have not found a list of the specific images which Guinness used in this lecture series, but it is probable that he displayed the photos by the Reverend W.D. Armstrong which Roger Casement had brought back to London.
72. Guinness to Morel, 2 Feb. 1904, Morel Papers, F4, CRA 1903-08.
73. Guinness to Morel, 8 Feb. 1904, Morel Papers, F4, CRA, 1903-08.
74. Lady J.A. Chalmers to Morel, 8 March 1904, Morel Papers, File 9: Morel to Lady J.A. Chalmers, 10 March, Morel Papers, Copybook, Jan.-May 1904.
75. E.D. Morel to John Holt, 19 Jan. 1904, cited in Slade, English-Speaking Missions, 300, fn. 2.
76. Ruth Slade, 'King Leopold II and the Attitude of English and American Catholics towards the Anti-Congolese Campaign', Zaire, 11 (June 1957), 593-612; Jean Stengers, 'Morel and Belgium', in Louis and Stengers (eds.), E.D. Morel's History, 221-51.
77. Ruth Slade, 'King Leopold II and the Attitude of English and American Catholics towards the Anti-Congolese Campaign', Zaire, 11 (June 1957), 593-612; Jean Stengers, 'Morel and Belgium', in Louis and Stengers (eds.), E.D. Morel's History, 221-51.
78. H.R. Fox Bourne to E.D. Morel, 29 Dec. 1903, Morel Papers, F8, File 67.
79. Casement to Morel, 25 Jan. 1904, Morel Papers, F8, File 16.
80. E.D. Morel to Alfred Emmott, 26 Jan. 1904, Morel Papers, F4, 1903-08.
81. Morel to Lady J.A. Chalmers, 10 March 1904, Morel Papers, Copybook, Jan.-May 1904.
82. Morel to Alfred Emmott, 31 May 1904, Morel Papers, Copybook, May 1904-March 1905; Morel to Edward Russell, 9 March 1904, Morel Papers, Copybook, Jan.-May 1904.
83. Regarding the Brussells Conference on the slave trade and liquor traffic, see Suzanne Miers, Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade (New York, 1975).
84. 'Programme of the C.R.A.', Supplement published in West African Mail, May 1904.
85. E.D. Morel, King Leopold's Rule in Africa (London, 1904)
86. The CRA established a Finance Committee in March 1907 to raise funds to meet the overwhelming number of requests for lantern lectures and pamphlet literature. It was not until November 1908, however, that the CRA centralized its collection of funds in London by requiring auxiliaries to forward their gifts. Until that time, treasury duties were divided between London and Liverpool. To make matters more obscure, Morel did not publish registered lists of subscribers until 1907 because he did not want to reveal the meagre basis of the organization's funding. The CRA began keeping certified accounts in 1907 only to refute charges that it was a lobby funded entirely by merchant interests. By this time, missionaries had shifted the focus of funding away from merchants, as will be demonstrated below.
87. E.D. Morel to William Cadbury, no date (but references within the letter indicate that it was written in the first week of April 1905), Morel Papers, Copybook, March 1905-Nov. 1905.
88. CRA supporters included six Liberal MPs, six Conservative MPs, and one independent MP.
89. The past-presidents were the Reverends John Clifford, R.F. Horton, J. Munro Gibson and F.B. Meyer.
90. Although E.D. Morel would join the Labour Party in 1918, he did not have connections to the British labour movement in 1904. See E.D. Morel, The Black Man's Burden (London, 1920), 153.
91. Although E.D. Morel would join the Labour Party in 1918, he did not have connections to the British labour movement in 1904. See E.D. Morel, The Black Man's Burden (London, 1920), 153.
92. Roger Casement to E.D. Morel, 14 Dec. 1904, Morel Papers, F8, File 17.
93. E.D. Morel to Alice Stopford Green, 28 Dec. 1904, Morel Papers, Copybook, Feb. 1904-Jan. 1905.
94. With Cadbury's influence, the Congo scandal was raised for the first time at the Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends in June 1905. See correspondence between Morel and Cadbury in Morel Papers, F8, File 11, and The Friend, XLV, 23, 9 June 1905, 378-79.
95. Regarding Cadbury's donation to the CRA, see E.D. Morel to William Cadbury, 26 June 1905, Morel Papers, F8, File 11.
96. Roger Casement to E.D. Morel, 28 Aug. 1905, Morel Papers, F8, File 20.
97. John Harris to Morel, 19 Aug. 1905, Morel Papers, F8, File 75.
98. The friend, XLV, 41, 13 Oct. 1905, 670-72.
99. 'C.R.A. Organ', Oct. 1905, 402.
100. 'The Congo Atrocities. A Lecture to Accompany a Series of 60 Photographic Slides for the Optical Lantern'. Morel Papers, Section A (hereafter Congo Atrocities Lecture).
101. Quoted in Wm. Roger Louis, 'Morel and the Congo Reform Association, 1904-13', in Louis and Stengers (eds.), E.D. Morel's History, 210.
102. Congo Atrocities Lecture, 24.
103. Ibid., 29.
104. Ibid., 17, 30.
105. Ibid., 31.
106. La Vérité sur le Congo, 15 Nov. 1905, 455. This photograph was reprinted from the publication Petit Bleu, 17 Oct. 1905.
107. La Vérité sur le Congo, 15 Nov. 1905, 455. This photograph was reprinted from the publication Petit Bleu, 17 Oct. 1905.
108. Morel to F.B. Meyer, 1 Feb. 1906, Morel Papers, Copybook, Nov. 1905-May 1906.
109. Morel to Reverend W.H. Haden, 17 Oct. 1906, Morel Papers, File 1, Box 'Morel Cuttings'.
110. Regions Beyond, May 1906, 113-14.
111. Marchal, E.D. Morel contre Léopold II, 2, 362-63.
112. The following is a list of other missionaries, returned from the Congo, who lectured on behalf of the Congo reform campaign. This list is drawn from notices of lantern lectures in the 'CRA Official Organ'. Brethren of the Congo Balolo Mission: Rev. Arthur Bowen, Rev. C.E. Franck, Rev. Herbert Frost, Rev. Somerville Gilchrist, Rev. B.J. Lower, Rev. Charles Padfield, Rev. William Wilkes, Rev. John Whitehead, Rev. Peter Whytock; brethren of the Baptist Missionary Society: Rev. John Howell, Rev. Kenred Smith, Rev. J.R.M. Stephens; brethren of the American Baptist Missionary Union: Emily Banks, Joseph Clark.
113. See note 69 above.
114. Regarding the organization and role of town meetings, see Morel to F.B. Meyer, 27 Nov. 1905, Morel Papers, Copybook, Nov. 1905-May 1906; Morel to Mrs. Emmott, 1 Oct. 1906 and Morel to John Harris, 17 Dec. 1906, Morel Papers, File 1, Box 'Morel Cuttings', volume of out correspondence; Morel to Robert Emmett, 5 Nov. 1909, Morel Papers, F9.
115. In the fiscal year 1907-08, the London auxiliary turned a profit on 86 lectures, collecting numerous small donations for a total of £346.19.3.
116. Arnold Rowntree gave £10 and Barrow Cadbury gave £50. By this time, William Cadbury had begun to finance E.D. Morel personally, rather than through gifts to the CRA.
117. E.D. Morel, 'The Congo Reform Association and Mr. Belloc', The New Age, 21 Dec. 1907. Press clipping in Morel Papers, File I, vol. 1907-08.
118. For evidence of women's significant contributions to British overseas missions at the turn of the century, see F.K. Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England (Oxford, 1980), 231-35.
119. Morel to John Harris, 26 April 1906, Morel Papers, Copybook Nov. 1905-May 1906.
120. Morel to John Harris, 28 Feb. 1907, Morel Papers, Copybook, Jan.-Oct. 1907.
121. The CRA attempted to systematize and then centralize its accounts in 1907-08, but the extant records of finances are haphazard and incomplete. I present below a rough profile of funding between 1904 and 1913, with irregularities in chronology determined by the archival records: 25 Jan. 1904 to 6 Jan. 1905: £895.19.7; 7 Jan. 1905 to 19 April 1906: more than £1200, but precise figures unavailable; 20 April 1906 to 31 March 1907: £815.0.3; 1 April 1907 to 31 March 1908: £1720.7.0; April 1908 to Nov. 1908: unavailable; 3 Nov. 1908 to 31 Dec. 1908: £461.15.5; 1 Jan. 1909 to 31 Oct. 1909: £1955.1.6; 1 Nov. 1909 to 31 Oct. 1910: £1899.4.8; 1 Nov. 1910 to 31 Oct. 1911: £879.19.10; 1 Nov. 1911 to 30 Sept. 1912: £683.14.5; 1 Oct. 1912 to 13 June 1913: unavailable.
122. Morel to Reverend William Wilkes, 25 Aug. 1909, Emmott Papers, II, Mss. Emmott 4.
123. Morel to John Harris, 23 May 1911, Morel Papers, F8, File 77.
124. Regarding conflicts over authority within the CRA between Morel and John Harris, see Marchal, E.D. Morel contre Léopold II, 2, 359-63, 437.
125. See note 89.
126. See Louis and Stengers, E.D. Morel's History. 95. John Harris to Miss C.W. Mackintosh, 6 Dec. 1915. Anti-Slavery Papers, D3/13.
127. See, for example, the series published by Manchester University Press, 'Studies in Imperialism'.