"Cheap and nasty": German goods, socialism, and the 1876 Philadelphia World Fair

International Review of Social History

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 207-226

  Bonnell, Andrew ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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ARTICLE; CONSUMER; CULTURAL FACTOR; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; GERMANY; HISTORY; INDUSTRY; LEGAL ASPECT; LEISURE; MATERIALS; POLITICAL SYSTEM; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLICATION; SAFETY; UNITED STATES;

CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY; CONSUMER SATISFACTION; CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS; EXHIBITS AS TOPIC; GERMANY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; INDUSTRY; LEISURE ACTIVITIES; MANUFACTURED MATERIALS; PHILADELPHIA; POLITICAL SYSTEMS; PUBLIC HEALTH; SOCIALISM;

EID: 0035620923     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S002085900100013X     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. See Evelyn Kroker, Die Weltausstellungen im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1975); Werner Plum, World Exhibitions in the Nineteenth Century: Pageants of Social and Political Change, transl. Lux Furtmüller (Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1977); E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital 1848-1875 (New York, 1979), p. 31.
2. See Evelyn Kroker, Die Weltausstellungen im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1975); Werner Plum, World Exhibitions in the Nineteenth Century: Pageants of Social and Political Change, transl. Lux Furtmüller (Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1977); E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital 1848-1875 (New York, 1979), p. 31.
3. See Evelyn Kroker, Die Weltausstellungen im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1975); Werner Plum, World Exhibitions in the Nineteenth Century: Pageants of Social and Political Change, transl. Lux Furtmüller (Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1977); E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital 1848-1875 (New York, 1979), p. 31.
4. For the figure, cf. Plum, World Exhibitions, p. 63; Kroker, Weltausstellungen im 19. Jahrhundert, p. 146.
5. For the figure, cf. Plum, World Exhibitions, p. 63; Kroker, Weltausstellungen im 19. Jahrhundert, p. 146.
6. R. Elcho, "Weltausstellungsskizzen. 2. Die Maschinenhalle", Die Gartenlaube, 1876, p. 542. On Die Gartenlaube and its promotion of German national identity,
7. see Kirsten Belgum, Popularizing the Nation: Audience, Representation, and the Production of Identity in Die Gartenlaube, 1853-1900 (Lincoln [etc.], 1998), especially pp. 81-82 on the magazine's glorification of Alfred Krupp as a symbol of German technological and military strength, and pp. 103-116 on the magazine's coverage of international exhibitions as showcases for the same.
8. Elcho, "Weltausstellungsskizzen", pp. 542f.
9. A.P., "The Great Exhibition", The New York Times, 3 July 1876.
10. On Reuleaux (1829-1905) see Anton Bettelheim (ed.) Biographisches Jahrbuch und Deutscher Nekrolog, X. Band (Berlin, 1907), pp. 276-278 (entry by H. Fuchs), 234*; Hans-Joachim Braun and Wolfhard Weber, "Ingenieurwissenschaft und Gesellschaftspolitik. Das Wirken von Franz Reuleaux", in Reinhard Rürup (ed.), Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979 (Berlin, 1979), vol. 1, pp. 285-300; Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd. 3: 1849-1914 (Munich, 1995), pp. 416, 564, 1227; entry by Hans-Joachim Braun in Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie, vol. 8 (Munich, 1998), pp. 254-255.
11. On Reuleaux (1829-1905) see Anton Bettelheim (ed.) Biographisches Jahrbuch und Deutscher Nekrolog, X. Band (Berlin, 1907), pp. 276-278 (entry by H. Fuchs), 234*; Hans-Joachim Braun and Wolfhard Weber, "Ingenieurwissenschaft und Gesellschaftspolitik. Das Wirken von Franz Reuleaux", in Reinhard Rürup (ed.), Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979 (Berlin, 1979), vol. 1, pp. 285-300; Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd. 3: 1849-1914 (Munich, 1995), pp. 416, 564, 1227; entry by Hans-Joachim Braun in Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie, vol. 8 (Munich, 1998), pp. 254-255.
12. On Reuleaux (1829-1905) see Anton Bettelheim (ed.) Biographisches Jahrbuch und Deutscher Nekrolog, X. Band (Berlin, 1907), pp. 276-278 (entry by H. Fuchs), 234*; Hans-Joachim Braun and Wolfhard Weber, "Ingenieurwissenschaft und Gesellschaftspolitik. Das Wirken von Franz Reuleaux", in Reinhard Rürup (ed.), Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979 (Berlin, 1979), vol. 1, pp. 285-300; Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd. 3: 1849-1914 (Munich, 1995), pp. 416, 564, 1227; entry by Hans-Joachim Braun in Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie, vol. 8 (Munich, 1998), pp. 254-255.
13. On Reuleaux (1829-1905) see Anton Bettelheim (ed.) Biographisches Jahrbuch und Deutscher Nekrolog, X. Band (Berlin, 1907), pp. 276-278 (entry by H. Fuchs), 234*; Hans-Joachim Braun and Wolfhard Weber, "Ingenieurwissenschaft und Gesellschaftspolitik. Das Wirken von Franz Reuleaux", in Reinhard Rürup (ed.), Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979 (Berlin, 1979), vol. 1, pp. 285-300; Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd. 3: 1849-1914 (Munich, 1995), pp. 416, 564, 1227; entry by Hans-Joachim Braun in Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie, vol. 8 (Munich, 1998), pp. 254-255.
14. F. Reuleaux, "Briefe aus Philadelphia" (dated Philadelphia, 2 June 1876), in National-Zeitung, no. 293, 27 June 1876. That Reuleaux was not exaggerating about the proliferation of patriotic kitsch is suggested by a report that just one maker of metal ornaments displayed thirty-five Kaiser Wilhelms, thirty-four copies of the Sieges-Säule (Berlin's Victory Column), thirty effigies of the Crown Prince, twenty-four Bismarcks, twenty-two examples of Frederick the Great, and eight Moltkes; "Das deutsche Reich auf den internationalen Ausstellungen", Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 77, 7 July 1876.
15. F. Reuleaux, "Briefe aus Philadelphia" (dated Philadelphia, 2 June 1876), in National-Zeitung, no. 293, 27 June 1876. That Reuleaux was not exaggerating about the proliferation of patriotic kitsch is suggested by a report that just one maker of metal ornaments displayed thirty-five Kaiser Wilhelms, thirty-four copies of the Sieges-Säule (Berlin's Victory Column), thirty effigies of the Crown Prince, twenty-four Bismarcks, twenty-two examples of Frederick the Great, and eight Moltkes; "Das deutsche Reich auf den internationalen Ausstellungen", Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 77, 7 July 1876.
16. F. Reuleaux, "Briefe aus Philadelphia", National-Zeitung, no. 293, 27 June 1876. The negative local press comments on the German display were also noted by the correspondent of the Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt (no. 176, 24 June 1876, Morgenblatt, article: "Die deutsche Ausstellungskommission in Philadelphia"): it quoted one paper as calling the German contribution "the poorest, least interesting and least instructive of all". According to the same article, Reuleaux' appointment as commissioner had been a belated attempt to remedy this situation.
17. "German Trade", The Times, 24 July 1876. The story was also picked up by The New York Times, 7 August 1876 (article headed "German inferior manufactures"); cf. also the response of the Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt, no. 209, 27 July 1876, Morgenblatt (rubric: "Großbritannien"). Reuleaux' series of articles was subsequently reprinted as a separate pamphlet under the title Briefe aus Philadelphia (Braunschweig, 1877). See also the account of the controversy in Kees Gispen, New Profession, Old Order: Engineers and German Society, 1815-1914 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 115-121 (section entitled "the Reuleaux Episode"). Gispen's account focuses primarily on the controversy's implications for technical education and German industry's attitude towards technology.
18. "German Trade", The Times, 24 July 1876. The story was also picked up by The New York Times, 7 August 1876 (article headed "German inferior manufactures"); cf. also the response of the Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt, no. 209, 27 July 1876, Morgenblatt (rubric: "Großbritannien"). Reuleaux' series of articles was subsequently reprinted as a separate pamphlet under the title Briefe aus Philadelphia (Braunschweig, 1877). See also the account of the controversy in Kees Gispen, New Profession, Old Order: Engineers and German Society, 1815-1914 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 115-121 (section entitled "the Reuleaux Episode"). Gispen's account focuses primarily on the controversy's implications for technical education and German industry's attitude towards technology.
19. "German Trade", The Times, 24 July 1876. The story was also picked up by The New York Times, 7 August 1876 (article headed "German inferior manufactures"); cf. also the response of the Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt, no. 209, 27 July 1876, Morgenblatt (rubric: "Großbritannien"). Reuleaux' series of articles was subsequently reprinted as a separate pamphlet under the title Briefe aus Philadelphia (Braunschweig, 1877). See also the account of the controversy in Kees Gispen, New Profession, Old Order: Engineers and German Society, 1815-1914 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 115-121 (section entitled "the Reuleaux Episode"). Gispen's account focuses primarily on the controversy's implications for technical education and German industry's attitude towards technology.
20. Richard Oberländer, "Australien und die Weltausstellung in Sydney", Die Gartenlaube, no. 21, 1879, p. 354.
21. See H. Fuchs (note 6 above).
22. The Reuleaux debate raised a broad range of issues, including patent laws, tariffs, the improvement of productivity through greater mechanization, and improved technical education. There is insufficient space to explore all of these here. Rather, this article focuses principally on the resonance of the debate within German social democracy, which is one aspect of the Reuleaux controversy that has not been dealt with elsewhere.
23. National-Zeitung, no. 310, 6 July 1876 (Abend-Ausgabe).
24. Ibid.; "Politische Übersicht", Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt, no. 186, 4 July 1876, Abendblatt; the Catholic press was also ready to blame socialism as well as the Kulturkampf. See the comments of the Rheinischer Kurier (Wiesbaden) cited in Der Volksstaat, no. 81, 14 July 1876.
25. Ibid.; "Politische Übersicht", Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt, no. 186, 4 July 1876, Abendblatt; the Catholic press was also ready to blame socialism as well as the Kulturkampf. See the comments of the Rheinischer Kurier (Wiesbaden) cited in Der Volksstaat, no. 81, 14 July 1876.
26. Ibid.; "Politische Übersicht", Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt, no. 186, 4 July 1876, Abendblatt; the Catholic press was also ready to blame socialism as well as the Kulturkampf. See the comments of the Rheinischer Kurier (Wiesbaden) cited in Der Volksstaat, no. 81, 14 July 1876.
27. Reinhard Rürup, Emanzipation und Antisemitismus. Studien zur "Judenfrage" der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Frankfurt, 1987), pp. 111, 221, n. 35.
28. National-Zeitung, no. 310, 6 July 1876 (Abend-Ausgabe). Free-trade policies were blamed in the Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung, for example.
29. See National-Zeitung, no. 344, 26 July 1876 (Abend-Ausgabe).
30. E. Schlickeysen, "Philadelphia und die deutsche Industrie", National-Zeitung, no. 339, 1, Beiblatt, 23 July 1876;
31. cf. also Gispen, New Profession, Old Order, pp. 117f.
32. See Braun and Weber, "Ingenieurwissenschaft und Gesellschaftspolitik", pp. 295-296. Werner von Siemens's account of the introduction of the 1877 patent law, in his Lebenserinnerungen, 5th edn (Berlin, 1897), pp. 260-261, notes the impact of the Reuleaux controversy on the campaign for the patent law.
33. F. Reuleaux, "Briefe aus Philadelphia III", dated Philadelphia, 19 July 1876, in National-Zeitung, no. 367, 9 August 1876 (Morgen-Ausgabe); cf. Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd.3, p. 564.
34. F. Reuleaux, "Briefe aus Philadelphia III", dated Philadelphia, 19 July 1876, in National-Zeitung, no. 367, 9 August 1876 (Morgen-Ausgabe); cf. Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd.3, p. 564.
35. Leading article "Die deutsche Technik", Neues Berliner Tageblatt, no. 171, 25 July 1876, and no. 172, 26 July 1876.
36. B.-Z., "Amerikanische Briefe xxiii", Neues Berliner Tageblatt, no. 182, 6 August 1876, 1, Beiblatt. Reuleaux' letter was not, of course, the sole topic of this and other reports from Philadelphia. Other matters reported on included the news of the Battle of Little Big Horn, a heatwave, and, from the point of view of German correspondents, the appalling success of American temperance activists in banning alcohol on Sundays from the exhibition grounds.
37. F. Reuleaux, "Briefe aus Philadelphia III".
38. F. Reuleaux, "Briefe aus Philadelphia IV", National-Zeitung, no. 379, 16 August 1876 (Morgen-Ausgabe).
39. As a compromise between the two socialist groups, the two papers continued to appear separately after the party's unification until their replacement in October 1876 by a single organ, Vorwärts. The united party bore the name Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands.
40. "Zwei Niederlagen", Der Volksstaat, no. 77, 5 July 1876. Emphasis in the original.
41. "Wer trägt die Schuld?", Der Volksstaat, no. 78, 7 July 1876 (emphases in original). Der Volksstaat, always ready to instruct its readers in foreign-language terms, also pointed out in this article that the original English word "nasty" was stronger than the German "schlecht".
42. Ibid.
43. "Politische Übersicht", Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt, no. 186, 4 July 1876, Abendblatt; also quoted in "Politische Übersicht" in Der Volksstaat, no. 80, 12 July 1876. The Lassallean Wilhelm Hasselmann had won the Reichstag mandate for Düsseldorf 2 (Elberfeld) in the 1874 elections.
44. "Politische Übersicht", in Der Volksstaat, no. 80, 12 July 1876.
45. Der Volksstaat, no. 85, 23 July 1876.
46. Quoted in Der Volksstaat, no. 87, 28 July 1876.
47. Der Volksstaat, no. 92, 9 August 1876.
48. For the Eisenacher social democrats' position on the national question, see Werner Conze and Dieter Groh, Die Arbeiterbewegung in der nationalen Bewegung (Stuttgart, 1966); Andrew Bonnell, "Between Internationalism, Nationalism and Particularism: German Social Democrats and the War of 1870-71", Australian Journal of Politics and History, 38 (1992), pp. 375-385; Dieter Groh and Peter Brandt, "Vaterlandslose Gesellen": Sozial-demokratie und Nation 1860-1990 (Munich, 1992), pp. 17-30.
49. For the Eisenacher social democrats' position on the national question, see Werner Conze and Dieter Groh, Die Arbeiterbewegung in der nationalen Bewegung (Stuttgart, 1966); Andrew Bonnell, "Between Internationalism, Nationalism and Particularism: German Social Democrats and the War of 1870-71", Australian Journal of Politics and History, 38 (1992), pp. 375-385; Dieter Groh and Peter Brandt, "Vaterlandslose Gesellen": Sozial-demokratie und Nation 1860-1990 (Munich, 1992), pp. 17-30.
50. For the Eisenacher social democrats' position on the national question, see Werner Conze and Dieter Groh, Die Arbeiterbewegung in der nationalen Bewegung (Stuttgart, 1966); Andrew Bonnell, "Between Internationalism, Nationalism and Particularism: German Social Democrats and the War of 1870-71", Australian Journal of Politics and History, 38 (1992), pp. 375-385; Dieter Groh and Peter Brandt, "Vaterlandslose Gesellen": Sozial-demokratie und Nation 1860-1990 (Munich, 1992), pp. 17-30.
51. "Wer und was richtet Deutschland zu Grunde?", Der Volksstaat, no. 93, 11 August 1876.
52. "Ein neuer Brief von Reuleaux", I and II, Der Volksstaat, no. 95, 16 August, and no. 96, 18 August 1876.
53. A reference to the policies promoted by Otto von Camphausen, Prussian Finance Minister, and Heinrich von Achenbach, Prussian Minister for Trade, Industry, and Public Works.
54. "Ein neuer Brief von Reuleaux II", Der Volksstaat, no. 96, 18 August 1876.
55. Die parlamentarische Tätigkeit des Deutschen Reichstages und der Landtage und die Sozialdemokratie von 1874 bis 1876 (originally published November 1876), in August Bebel, Ausgewählte Reden und Schriften, Bd.1: 1863 bis 1878, R. Dlubek et al. (eds) (Berlin, 1983), pp. 421-422 (quotation p. 422); cf. also "Die gesammte Nationalökonomie contra Camphausen", Der Volksstaat, no. 83, 19 July 1876: Camphausen had overlooked the fact .. "that if one tries to kill off the social question by screwing down wages, the first thing that happens is that German industry goes completely to the devil".
56. Die parlamentarische Tätigkeit des Deutschen Reichstages und der Landtage und die Sozialdemokratie von 1874 bis 1876 (originally published November 1876), in August Bebel, Ausgewählte Reden und Schriften, Bd.1: 1863 bis 1878, R. Dlubek et al. (eds) (Berlin, 1983), pp. 421-422 (quotation p. 422); cf. also "Die gesammte Nationalökonomie contra Camphausen", Der Volksstaat, no. 83, 19 July 1876: Camphausen had overlooked the fact .. "that if one tries to kill off the social question by screwing down wages, the first thing that happens is that German industry goes completely to the devil".
57. "Leitartikel", Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 89, 4 August 1876.
58. "Von der Weltausstellung zu Philadelphia", Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 98, 23 August; no. 99, 25 August 1876.
59. Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 108, 15 September 1876;
60. also "Politische Übersicht", no. 110, 20 September 1876.
61. "Ueber die Weltausstellung in Philadelphia", Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 112, 24 September 1876.
62. See note 33 above.
63. "Leitartikel", Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 75, 2 July 1876.
64. "Das deutsche Reich auf den internationalen Ausstellungen", Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 77, 7 July 1876.
65. "Die Social-Demokraten und die Welt-Ausstellung", Neuer Social-Demokrat , no. 83, 21 July 1876.
66. Neuer Social-Demokrat, no. 93, 13 August 1876. The Reuleaux controversy continued to occupy the editorial writer of the Neuer Social-Demokrat in subsequent issues: see no. 96, 20 August and no. 100, 30 August 1876.
67. August Bebel, "Die parlamentarische Tätigkeit 1874-1876", in idem, Ausgewählte Reden und Schriften, Bd.1, p. 359. (Footnote on this page incorrectly gives date of Philadelphia exhibition as 1875.)
68. See Gerhard A. Ritter and Klaus Tenfelde, Arbeiter im Deutschen Kaiserreich 1871 bis 1914 (Bonn, 1992), pp. 414-419.
69. Johann Paul, Alfred Krupp und die Arbeiterbewegung (Düsseldorf, 1987), especially pp. 205-211, 219-229; see also Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany (Princeton, NJ, 2000).
70. Johann Paul, Alfred Krupp und die Arbeiterbewegung (Düsseldorf, 1987), especially pp. 205-211, 219-229; see also Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany (Princeton, NJ, 2000).
71. Protokoll des Socialisten-Congresses zu Gotha vom 19. bis 23. August 1876 (Berlin, 1876; reprinted Glashütten, 1971), p. 61.
72. Dieter Fricke, Die deutsche Arbeiterbewegung 1869 bis 1914. Ein Handbuch über ihre Organisation und Tätigkeit im Klassenkampf (Berlin, 1976), pp. 532, 556.
73. Rudolf Boch, Handwerker-Sozialisten gegen Fabrikgesellschaft: Lokale Fachvereine, Massengewerkschaft und industrielle Rationalisierung in Solingen 1870 bis 1914 (Göttingen, 1985). According to Boch (pp. 42, 309f.) nearly fifty per cent of Solingen social democrats in 1876 were Schleifer (skilled knife-grinders).
74. Fricke, Die deutsche Arbeiterbewegung 1869 bis 1914, p. 556.
75. See Günter Trautmann, "Das Scheitern liberaler Vereinspolitik und die Entstehung der sozialistischen Arbeiterbewegung in Hamburg zwischen 1862 und 1871", pp. 164-176, 169; and Helga Kutz-Bauer, "Arbeiterschaft und Sozialdemokratie in Hamburg vom Gründerkrach bis zum Ende des Sozialistengesetzes", pp. 179-192, 186;
76. See Günter Trautmann, "Das Scheitern liberaler Vereinspolitik und die Entstehung der sozialistischen Arbeiterbewegung in Hamburg zwischen 1862 und 1871", pp. 164-176, 169; and Helga Kutz-Bauer, "Arbeiterschaft und Sozialdemokratie in Hamburg vom Gründerkrach bis zum Ende des Sozialistengesetzes", pp. 179-192, 186;
77. both in Arno Herzig et al. (eds), Arbeiter in Hamburg (Hamburg, 1983);
78. Helga Kutz-Bauer, Arbeiterschaft, Arbeiterbewegung und bürgerlicher Staat in der Zeit der Großen Depression (Bonn, 1988), pp. 179-184.
79. See the report from Pforzheim under the rubric "Correspondenzen", in Der Volksstaat, no. 37, 29 March 1876.
80. Gerhard A. Ritter, Arbeiter, Arbeiterbewegung und soziale Ideen in Deutschland (Munich, 1996), p. 184.
81. Ibid.
82. H. Zwahr, Zur Konstituierung des Proletariats als Klasse: Strukturuntersuchung über das Leipziger Proletariat während der industriellen Revolution, (Berlin, 1978). See also the essays in Hartmut Zwahr (ed.), Die Konstituierung der deutschen Arbeiterklasse von den dreissiger bis zu den siebziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1981); for a more recent summary, Hartmut Zwahr, "Class Formation and the Labor Movement as the Subject of Dialectic Social History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 85-103; cf. also V.L. Lidtke, "The Formation of the Working Class in Germany" (review article), Central European History, 4 (1980), pp. 393-400; Jürgen Kocka, Lohnarbeit und Klassenbildung (Berlin [etc.], 1983); idem, "Problems of Working-Class Formation in Germany: The Early Years, 1800-1875", in Ira Katznelson and A.R. Zolberg (eds), Working-Class formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 279-351.
83. H. Zwahr, Zur Konstituierung des Proletariats als Klasse: Strukturuntersuchung über das Leipziger Proletariat während der industriellen Revolution, (Berlin, 1978). See also the essays in Hartmut Zwahr (ed.), Die Konstituierung der deutschen Arbeiterklasse von den dreissiger bis zu den siebziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1981); for a more recent summary, Hartmut Zwahr, "Class Formation and the Labor Movement as the Subject of Dialectic Social History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 85-103; cf. also V.L. Lidtke, "The Formation of the Working Class in Germany" (review article), Central European History, 4 (1980), pp. 393-400; Jürgen Kocka, Lohnarbeit und Klassenbildung (Berlin [etc.], 1983); idem, "Problems of Working-Class Formation in Germany: The Early Years, 1800-1875", in Ira Katznelson and A.R. Zolberg (eds), Working-Class formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 279-351.
84. H. Zwahr, Zur Konstituierung des Proletariats als Klasse: Strukturuntersuchung über das Leipziger Proletariat während der industriellen Revolution, (Berlin, 1978). See also the essays in Hartmut Zwahr (ed.), Die Konstituierung der deutschen Arbeiterklasse von den dreissiger bis zu den siebziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1981); for a more recent summary, Hartmut Zwahr, "Class Formation and the Labor Movement as the Subject of Dialectic Social History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 85-103; cf. also V.L. Lidtke, "The Formation of the Working Class in Germany" (review article), Central European History, 4 (1980), pp. 393-400; Jürgen Kocka, Lohnarbeit und Klassenbildung (Berlin [etc.], 1983); idem, "Problems of Working-Class Formation in Germany: The Early Years, 1800-1875", in Ira Katznelson and A.R. Zolberg (eds), Working-Class formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 279-351.
85. H. Zwahr, Zur Konstituierung des Proletariats als Klasse: Strukturuntersuchung über das Leipziger Proletariat während der industriellen Revolution, (Berlin, 1978). See also the essays in Hartmut Zwahr (ed.), Die Konstituierung der deutschen Arbeiterklasse von den dreissiger bis zu den siebziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1981); for a more recent summary, Hartmut Zwahr, "Class Formation and the Labor Movement as the Subject of Dialectic Social History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 85-103; cf. also V.L. Lidtke, "The Formation of the Working Class in Germany" (review article), Central European History, 4 (1980), pp. 393-400; Jürgen Kocka, Lohnarbeit und Klassenbildung (Berlin [etc.], 1983); idem, "Problems of Working-Class Formation in Germany: The Early Years, 1800-1875", in Ira Katznelson and A.R. Zolberg (eds), Working-Class formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 279-351.
86. H. Zwahr, Zur Konstituierung des Proletariats als Klasse: Strukturuntersuchung über das Leipziger Proletariat während der industriellen Revolution, (Berlin, 1978). See also the essays in Hartmut Zwahr (ed.), Die Konstituierung der deutschen Arbeiterklasse von den dreissiger bis zu den siebziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1981); for a more recent summary, Hartmut Zwahr, "Class Formation and the Labor Movement as the Subject of Dialectic Social History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 85-103; cf. also V.L. Lidtke, "The Formation of the Working Class in Germany" (review article), Central European History, 4 (1980), pp. 393-400; Jürgen Kocka, Lohnarbeit und Klassenbildung (Berlin [etc.], 1983); idem, "Problems of Working-Class Formation in Germany: The Early Years, 1800-1875", in Ira Katznelson and A.R. Zolberg (eds), Working-Class formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 279-351.
87. H. Zwahr, Zur Konstituierung des Proletariats als Klasse: Strukturuntersuchung über das Leipziger Proletariat während der industriellen Revolution, (Berlin, 1978). See also the essays in Hartmut Zwahr (ed.), Die Konstituierung der deutschen Arbeiterklasse von den dreissiger bis zu den siebziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1981); for a more recent summary, Hartmut Zwahr, "Class Formation and the Labor Movement as the Subject of Dialectic Social History", International Review of Social History, 38 (1993), Supplement, pp. 85-103; cf. also V.L. Lidtke, "The Formation of the Working Class in Germany" (review article), Central European History, 4 (1980), pp. 393-400; Jürgen Kocka, Lohnarbeit und Klassenbildung (Berlin [etc.], 1983); idem, "Problems of Working-Class Formation in Germany: The Early Years, 1800-1875", in Ira Katznelson and A.R. Zolberg (eds), Working-Class formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 279-351.
88. For a good introduction to the discussion on continuities and discontinuities between older craft traditions and the German socialist labour movement in the 1870s, see Jürgen Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement in Nineteenth-Century Germany", in Pat Thane et al. (eds), The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm (Cambridge [etc.], 1984), pp. 95-117. See also Boch, Handwerker-Sozialisten gegen Fabrikgesellschaft; Wolfgang Renzsch, Handwerker und Lohnarbeiter in der frühen Arbeiterbewegung (Göttingen, 1980); Gerhard Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter. Sozialgeschichte der vorindustriellen und industriellen Arbeiter in Braunschweig 1830-1880 (Stuttgart, 1986); Friedrich Lenger, Zwischen Kleinbürgertum und Proletariat. Studien zur Sozialgeschichte der Düsseldorfer Handwerker, 1816-1878 (Göttingen, 1986).
89. For a good introduction to the discussion on continuities and discontinuities between older craft traditions and the German socialist labour movement in the 1870s, see Jürgen Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement in Nineteenth-Century Germany", in Pat Thane et al. (eds), The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm (Cambridge [etc.], 1984), pp. 95-117. See also Boch, Handwerker-Sozialisten gegen Fabrikgesellschaft; Wolfgang Renzsch, Handwerker und Lohnarbeiter in der frühen Arbeiterbewegung (Göttingen, 1980); Gerhard Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter. Sozialgeschichte der vorindustriellen und industriellen Arbeiter in Braunschweig 1830-1880 (Stuttgart, 1986); Friedrich Lenger, Zwischen Kleinbürgertum und Proletariat. Studien zur Sozialgeschichte der Düsseldorfer Handwerker, 1816-1878 (Göttingen, 1986).
90. For a good introduction to the discussion on continuities and discontinuities between older craft traditions and the German socialist labour movement in the 1870s, see Jürgen Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement in Nineteenth-Century Germany", in Pat Thane et al. (eds), The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm (Cambridge [etc.], 1984), pp. 95-117. See also Boch, Handwerker-Sozialisten gegen Fabrikgesellschaft; Wolfgang Renzsch, Handwerker und Lohnarbeiter in der frühen Arbeiterbewegung (Göttingen, 1980); Gerhard Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter. Sozialgeschichte der vorindustriellen und industriellen Arbeiter in Braunschweig 1830-1880 (Stuttgart, 1986); Friedrich Lenger, Zwischen Kleinbürgertum und Proletariat. Studien zur Sozialgeschichte der Düsseldorfer Handwerker, 1816-1878 (Göttingen, 1986).
91. For a good introduction to the discussion on continuities and discontinuities between older craft traditions and the German socialist labour movement in the 1870s, see Jürgen Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement in Nineteenth-Century Germany", in Pat Thane et al. (eds), The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm (Cambridge [etc.], 1984), pp. 95-117. See also Boch, Handwerker-Sozialisten gegen Fabrikgesellschaft; Wolfgang Renzsch, Handwerker und Lohnarbeiter in der frühen Arbeiterbewegung (Göttingen, 1980); Gerhard Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter. Sozialgeschichte der vorindustriellen und industriellen Arbeiter in Braunschweig 1830-1880 (Stuttgart, 1986); Friedrich Lenger, Zwischen Kleinbürgertum und Proletariat. Studien zur Sozialgeschichte der Düsseldorfer Handwerker, 1816-1878 (Göttingen, 1986).
92. August Bebel, Aus meinem Leben (Berlin, 1980), p. 51.
93. Ibid., p. 52.
94. Karl Marx, "Randglossen zum Programm der deutschen Arbeiterpartei", in Karl Marx and F. Engels, Werke [hereafter MEW], Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus beim ZK der SED (ed.) (Berlin, 1982), vol. 19, pp. 15f.
95. Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter, pp. 426-430. See also Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement". Mühlberg offers the example of Berlin brewery workers, whose union still obliged its members in 1885 to attend fellow members' funerals wearing a dark suit and a tall hat, and bearing a wreath with the association's symbol; Dietrich Mühlberg (ed.), Proletariat: Culture and Lifestyle in the 19tk Century, transl. Katherine Vanovitch (Leipzig, 1988), p. 176. Note also the strong continuities in customs and corporate identity among miners, described in Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century", Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978), pp. 377-412. On continuities in gender attitudes from craft workers' culture to the socialist labour movement, see Sigrid KochBaumgarten, "'Er war ein Mann, nehmt alles nur in allem'. Geschlechterbilder in gewerkschaftlichen Nachrufen", Internationale wissenschaftliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung, 34 (1998), pp. 316-342, 32if.
96. Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter, pp. 426-430. See also Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement". Mühlberg offers the example of Berlin brewery workers, whose union still obliged its members in 1885 to attend fellow members' funerals wearing a dark suit and a tall hat, and bearing a wreath with the association's symbol; Dietrich Mühlberg (ed.), Proletariat: Culture and Lifestyle in the 19tk Century, transl. Katherine Vanovitch (Leipzig, 1988), p. 176. Note also the strong continuities in customs and corporate identity among miners, described in Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century", Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978), pp. 377-412. On continuities in gender attitudes from craft workers' culture to the socialist labour movement, see Sigrid KochBaumgarten, "'Er war ein Mann, nehmt alles nur in allem'. Geschlechterbilder in gewerkschaftlichen Nachrufen", Internationale wissenschaftliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung, 34 (1998), pp. 316-342, 32if.
97. Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter, pp. 426-430. See also Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement". Mühlberg offers the example of Berlin brewery workers, whose union still obliged its members in 1885 to attend fellow members' funerals wearing a dark suit and a tall hat, and bearing a wreath with the association's symbol; Dietrich Mühlberg (ed.), Proletariat: Culture and Lifestyle in the 19tk Century, transl. Katherine Vanovitch (Leipzig, 1988), p. 176. Note also the strong continuities in customs and corporate identity among miners, described in Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century", Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978), pp. 377-412. On continuities in gender attitudes from craft workers' culture to the socialist labour movement, see Sigrid KochBaumgarten, "'Er war ein Mann, nehmt alles nur in allem'. Geschlechterbilder in gewerkschaftlichen Nachrufen", Internationale wissenschaftliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung, 34 (1998), pp. 316-342, 32if.
98. Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter, pp. 426-430. See also Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement". Mühlberg offers the example of Berlin brewery workers, whose union still obliged its members in 1885 to attend fellow members' funerals wearing a dark suit and a tall hat, and bearing a wreath with the association's symbol; Dietrich Mühlberg (ed.), Proletariat: Culture and Lifestyle in the 19tk Century, transl. Katherine Vanovitch (Leipzig, 1988), p. 176. Note also the strong continuities in customs and corporate identity among miners, described in Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century", Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978), pp. 377-412. On continuities in gender attitudes from craft workers' culture to the socialist labour movement, see Sigrid KochBaumgarten, "'Er war ein Mann, nehmt alles nur in allem'. Geschlechterbilder in gewerkschaftlichen Nachrufen", Internationale wissenschaftliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung, 34 (1998), pp. 316-342, 32if.
99. Schildt, Tagelöhner, Gesellen, Arbeiter, pp. 426-430. See also Kocka, "Craft Traditions and the Labour Movement". Mühlberg offers the example of Berlin brewery workers, whose union still obliged its members in 1885 to attend fellow members' funerals wearing a dark suit and a tall hat, and bearing a wreath with the association's symbol; Dietrich Mühlberg (ed.), Proletariat: Culture and Lifestyle in the 19tk Century, transl. Katherine Vanovitch (Leipzig, 1988), p. 176. Note also the strong continuities in customs and corporate identity among miners, described in Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century", Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978), pp. 377-412. On continuities in gender attitudes from craft workers' culture to the socialist labour movement, see Sigrid KochBaumgarten, "'Er war ein Mann, nehmt alles nur in allem'. Geschlechterbilder in gewerkschaftlichen Nachrufen", Internationale wissenschaftliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung, 34 (1998), pp. 316-342, 32if.
100. Andreas Griessinger, Das symbolische Kapital der Ehre. Streikbewegungen und kollektives Bewußtsein deutscher Handwerksgesellen im 18. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt [etc.], 1981)1 especially ch. 8.
101. Joan Campbell, Joy in Work, German Work: The National Debate, 1800-1945 (Princeton, NJ, 1989), pp. 5, 3f.
102. Ibid., pp. 25, 26, 27.
103. Friedrich Engels, in "Der Sozialismus des Herrn Bismarck", first published in L'É́galité, no. 7, 3 March 1880, in MEW, vol. 19, p. 170.
104. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei, in MEW, vol. 4, p. 468.