Revealing a preference: Imperial preference and the Australian Tariff, 1901-14

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 35-64

  Sullivan, Emmett ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035614645     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086530108583111     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. See J. A. La Nauze, The Making of the Australian Constitution (Melbourne, 1972).
2. F. Crouzet, 'Trade and Empire: The British Experience from the Establishment of Free Trade Until the First World War', in B. M. Ratcliffe (ed.), Great Britain and Her World 1750-1914 (Manchester, 1975), 224.
3. See A. Marrison, British Business and Protection 1903-1932 (Oxford, 1996).
4. See for example P. Loveday, A. Martin and R. S. Parker (eds.), The Emergence of the Australian Party System (Sydney; 1977); A. Capling and B. Galligan, Beyond the Protective State (Melbourne, 1992), 70-89; C. M. L. Clark, A History of Australia, 5 (Melbourne, 1981), 128-308; S. Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, 4 (Melbourne, 1986), 71-121; H. G. Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth (Melbourne, 1911).
5. See for example P. Loveday, A. Martin and R. S. Parker (eds.), The Emergence of the Australian Party System (Sydney; 1977); A. Capling and B. Galligan, Beyond the Protective State (Melbourne, 1992), 70-89; C. M. L. Clark, A History of Australia, 5 (Melbourne, 1981), 128-308; S. Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, 4 (Melbourne, 1986), 71-121; H. G. Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth (Melbourne, 1911).
6. See for example P. Loveday, A. Martin and R. S. Parker (eds.), The Emergence of the Australian Party System (Sydney; 1977); A. Capling and B. Galligan, Beyond the Protective State (Melbourne, 1992), 70-89; C. M. L. Clark, A History of Australia, 5 (Melbourne, 1981), 128-308; S. Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, 4 (Melbourne, 1986), 71-121; H. G. Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth (Melbourne, 1911).
7. See for example P. Loveday, A. Martin and R. S. Parker (eds.), The Emergence of the Australian Party System (Sydney; 1977); A. Capling and B. Galligan, Beyond the Protective State (Melbourne, 1992), 70-89; C. M. L. Clark, A History of Australia, 5 (Melbourne, 1981), 128-308; S. Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, 4 (Melbourne, 1986), 71-121; H. G. Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth (Melbourne, 1911).
8. See for example P. Loveday, A. Martin and R. S. Parker (eds.), The Emergence of the Australian Party System (Sydney; 1977); A. Capling and B. Galligan, Beyond the Protective State (Melbourne, 1992), 70-89; C. M. L. Clark, A History of Australia, 5 (Melbourne, 1981), 128-308; S. Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, 4 (Melbourne, 1986), 71-121; H. G. Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth (Melbourne, 1911).
9. As examples, see K. Anderson, 'Tariffs and the Manufacturing Sector' (1987), in R. Maddock and I. W. McLean (eds.), The Australian Economy in the Long Run (Melbourne, 1987), 166-94; K. Tsokhas, Markets, Money & Men (Melbourne, 1990), 64-104; A. J. Reitsma, Trade Protection in Australia (Brisbane, 1960), 19-66; M. Siriwardana, 'The Economic Impact of Tariffs in the 1930s in Australia: The Brigden Report Re-Examined', Australian Economic Papers, 35 (1996), 370-89; N. G. Butlin, A. Barnard and J. J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism (Sydney, 1982); C. Forster, Industrial Development in Australia, 1920-1930 (Canberra, 1964).
10. As examples, see K. Anderson, 'Tariffs and the Manufacturing Sector' (1987), in R. Maddock and I. W. McLean (eds.), The Australian Economy in the Long Run (Melbourne, 1987), 166-94; K. Tsokhas, Markets, Money & Men (Melbourne, 1990), 64-104; A. J. Reitsma, Trade Protection in Australia (Brisbane, 1960), 19-66; M. Siriwardana, 'The Economic Impact of Tariffs in the 1930s in Australia: The Brigden Report Re-Examined', Australian Economic Papers, 35 (1996), 370-89; N. G. Butlin, A. Barnard and J. J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism (Sydney, 1982); C. Forster, Industrial Development in Australia, 1920-1930 (Canberra, 1964).
11. As examples, see K. Anderson, 'Tariffs and the Manufacturing Sector' (1987), in R. Maddock and I. W. McLean (eds.), The Australian Economy in the Long Run (Melbourne, 1987), 166-94; K. Tsokhas, Markets, Money & Men (Melbourne, 1990), 64-104; A. J. Reitsma, Trade Protection in Australia (Brisbane, 1960), 19-66; M. Siriwardana, 'The Economic Impact of Tariffs in the 1930s in Australia: The Brigden Report Re-Examined', Australian Economic Papers, 35 (1996), 370-89; N. G. Butlin, A. Barnard and J. J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism (Sydney, 1982); C. Forster, Industrial Development in Australia, 1920-1930 (Canberra, 1964).
12. As examples, see K. Anderson, 'Tariffs and the Manufacturing Sector' (1987), in R. Maddock and I. W. McLean (eds.), The Australian Economy in the Long Run (Melbourne, 1987), 166-94; K. Tsokhas, Markets, Money & Men (Melbourne, 1990), 64-104; A. J. Reitsma, Trade Protection in Australia (Brisbane, 1960), 19-66; M. Siriwardana, 'The Economic Impact of Tariffs in the 1930s in Australia: The Brigden Report Re-Examined', Australian Economic Papers, 35 (1996), 370-89; N. G. Butlin, A. Barnard and J. J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism (Sydney, 1982); C. Forster, Industrial Development in Australia, 1920-1930 (Canberra, 1964).
13. As examples, see K. Anderson, 'Tariffs and the Manufacturing Sector' (1987), in R. Maddock and I. W. McLean (eds.), The Australian Economy in the Long Run (Melbourne, 1987), 166-94; K. Tsokhas, Markets, Money & Men (Melbourne, 1990), 64-104; A. J. Reitsma, Trade Protection in Australia (Brisbane, 1960), 19-66; M. Siriwardana, 'The Economic Impact of Tariffs in the 1930s in Australia: The Brigden Report Re-Examined', Australian Economic Papers, 35 (1996), 370-89; N. G. Butlin, A. Barnard and J. J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism (Sydney, 1982); C. Forster, Industrial Development in Australia, 1920-1930 (Canberra, 1964).
14. As examples, see K. Anderson, 'Tariffs and the Manufacturing Sector' (1987), in R. Maddock and I. W. McLean (eds.), The Australian Economy in the Long Run (Melbourne, 1987), 166-94; K. Tsokhas, Markets, Money & Men (Melbourne, 1990), 64-104; A. J. Reitsma, Trade Protection in Australia (Brisbane, 1960), 19-66; M. Siriwardana, 'The Economic Impact of Tariffs in the 1930s in Australia: The Brigden Report Re-Examined', Australian Economic Papers, 35 (1996), 370-89; N. G. Butlin, A. Barnard and J. J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism (Sydney, 1982); C. Forster, Industrial Development in Australia, 1920-1930 (Canberra, 1964).
15. Andrew Marrison, British Business, hardly discusses the Australian position, or those of the other Dominions, in response to Britain's reconsideration of free trade.
16. Reitsma, Trade Protection, 62.
17. S. P. Magee, W. A. Brook and L. Young, Black Hole Tariffs and Endogenous Policy Theory (Cambridge, 1989), 242.
18. Reitsma, Trade Protection, 44
19. R. Pomfret, 'Trade Policy in Canada and Australia in the Twentieth Century', Australian Economic History Review, 40 (2000), 115-16: R. Bothwell, I. Drummond and J. English, Canada 1900-1945 (Toronto, 1987), 70-73.
20. R. Pomfret, 'Trade Policy in Canada and Australia in the Twentieth Century', Australian Economic History Review, 40 (2000), 115-16: R. Bothwell, I. Drummond and J. English, Canada 1900-1945 (Toronto, 1987), 70-73.
21. Tariff Commission, The New Canadian Tariff and Preferential Trade Within the Empire (London, 1907); Tariff Commission, Imperial Preference: Chronological Statement of the Progress of the Movement (London, 1921).
22. Tariff Commission, The New Canadian Tariff and Preferential Trade Within the Empire (London, 1907); Tariff Commission, Imperial Preference: Chronological Statement of the Progress of the Movement (London, 1921).
23. R. C. Brown and R. Cook, Canada 1896-1921 (Toronto, 1974), 18-21; Reitsma, Trade Protection, 45-47.
24. R. C. Brown and R. Cook, Canada 1896-1921 (Toronto, 1974), 18-21; Reitsma, Trade Protection, 45-47.
25. G. D. Patterson, in The Tariff in the Australian Colonies, 1856-1900 (Melbourne, 1968). xiv, summarizes the colonies' tariff-setting powers during the middle of the nineteenth century thus: 1. The colonial legislatures were empowered to impose tariffs up to any limit. 2. Differential duties were forbidden. 3. Legal Customs Bills should have been reserved (though in practice this was not done). 4. Protective duties were not provided for... but were... legal. 5. The Customs administrations had been placed under the control of the colonies. 6. [N]o provision had been made for inter-colonial fiscal co-operation.
26. For further discussion on these points, see J. A. La Nauze, 'Australian Tariffs and Imperial Control', Economic Record (1948); J. A. La Nauze, 'Merchants in Action: The Australian Tariffs of 1852', Economic Record (1955); Patterson, Australian Colonies, passim; J. Quick and R. R. Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (Sydney, 1901): B. Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia (Melbourne, 1941): C. D. Allin, A History of the Tariff Relations of the Australian Colonies (Minneapolis, 1918).
27. For further discussion on these points, see J. A. La Nauze, 'Australian Tariffs and Imperial Control', Economic Record (1948); J. A. La Nauze, 'Merchants in Action: The Australian Tariffs of 1852', Economic Record (1955); Patterson, Australian Colonies, passim; J. Quick and R. R. Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (Sydney, 1901): B. Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia (Melbourne, 1941): C. D. Allin, A History of the Tariff Relations of the Australian Colonies (Minneapolis, 1918).
28. For further discussion on these points, see J. A. La Nauze, 'Australian Tariffs and Imperial Control', Economic Record (1948); J. A. La Nauze, 'Merchants in Action: The Australian Tariffs of 1852', Economic Record (1955); Patterson, Australian Colonies, passim; J. Quick and R. R. Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (Sydney, 1901): B. Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia (Melbourne, 1941): C. D. Allin, A History of the Tariff Relations of the Australian Colonies (Minneapolis, 1918).
29. For further discussion on these points, see J. A. La Nauze, 'Australian Tariffs and Imperial Control', Economic Record (1948); J. A. La Nauze, 'Merchants in Action: The Australian Tariffs of 1852', Economic Record (1955); Patterson, Australian Colonies, passim; J. Quick and R. R. Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (Sydney, 1901): B. Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia (Melbourne, 1941): C. D. Allin, A History of the Tariff Relations of the Australian Colonies (Minneapolis, 1918).
30. For further discussion on these points, see J. A. La Nauze, 'Australian Tariffs and Imperial Control', Economic Record (1948); J. A. La Nauze, 'Merchants in Action: The Australian Tariffs of 1852', Economic Record (1955); Patterson, Australian Colonies, passim; J. Quick and R. R. Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (Sydney, 1901): B. Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia (Melbourne, 1941): C. D. Allin, A History of the Tariff Relations of the Australian Colonies (Minneapolis, 1918).
31. For further discussion on these points, see J. A. La Nauze, 'Australian Tariffs and Imperial Control', Economic Record (1948); J. A. La Nauze, 'Merchants in Action: The Australian Tariffs of 1852', Economic Record (1955); Patterson, Australian Colonies, passim; J. Quick and R. R. Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (Sydney, 1901): B. Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia (Melbourne, 1941): C. D. Allin, A History of the Tariff Relations of the Australian Colonies (Minneapolis, 1918).
32. A. Deakin (edited J. A. La Nauze), Federated Australia (Melbourne, 1968), dateline 15 Jan. 1901, published 20 Feb. 1901, 22.
33. See, for example, comments by Sir Josiah Symon, later a Free Trade federal senator for South Australia, 17 Feb. 1898, in Victoria, Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention. Third Session. Melbourne, 20 Jan. to 17 March 1898, vol. 1 (Sydney, 1986), 1150; C. R. Hall, The Manufacturers (Sydney, 1971), 131.
34. See, for example, comments by Sir Josiah Symon, later a Free Trade federal senator for South Australia, 17 Feb. 1898, in Victoria, Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention. Third Session. Melbourne, 20 Jan. to 17 March 1898, vol. 1 (Sydney, 1986), 1150; C. R. Hall, The Manufacturers (Sydney, 1971), 131.
35. Reitsma, Trade Protection, 47-49.
36. For a broader discussion of the issue, see P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914 (Harlow, 1993), 202-25, and Marrison, British Business, 1-138, which informs the following section.
37. For a broader discussion of the issue, see P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914 (Harlow, 1993), 202-25, and Marrison, British Business, 1-138, which informs the following section.
38. The campaign for 'fair trade' originated in the 1880s. Chamberlain developed this after 1903, linking free trade to the low level of domestic industrial investment, and the high degree of capital export. S. H. Zebel, 'Joseph Chamberlain and the Genesis of Tariff Reform', Journal of British Studies, 7 (1967), 131-57.
39. F. H. Capie, Tariffs and Growth (Manchester, 1994), 26-37.
40. W. J. Ashley, The Tariff Problem (London, 1903), 151, 156.
41. James Stewart (Labor, Qld) and Richard O'Connor (Prot, NSW), 6 Feb. 1902, Australia, Senate, Debates (hereafter SD), 7, 9717.
42. See B. Hoare, Preferential Trade (Melbourne, 1904), 290.
43. The development of Federal party politics went through many phases during the first two decades of the Australian Commonwealth. The three initial groupings in 1901 - Labor, Free Traders and Protectionists - could at best be described as 'loose'. This is seen in the Reid-McLean Ministry of 1904-5, which was made up of Reid's Free Traders' and McLean's dissenting Protectionists. After 1906 the two non-Labor parties settled their differences over commercial policy and moved to one body during an eight-year period. Therefore, members elected as Free Traders in the first instance might subsequently be recorded as sitting as 'Anti-Socialist', then as 'Liberals', and for some after 1917, as 'Nationalists'. Deakin's Protectionist-Free Trade-Tariff Reform Coalition of 1909-10 is also known as a 'Fusionist' Ministry, as all of the parties of the centre and the right slowly merged. Accordingly, a number of the politicians cited in this paper have several political affiliations over the 1901-14 period. For the sake of comprehension, they are described by their initial party, as it best represented their stance on the Tariff, unless they shifted radically across the socialist/anti-socialist divide.
44. William Higgs (Labor, Qld) and James Drake (Prot, Qld), 11 June 1903, SD, 13, 747-48; Higgs (Labor, Capricornia, Qld), 23 April 1914, HoRD, 73, 256.
45. William Higgs (Labor, Qld) and James Drake (Prot, Qld), 11 June 1903, SD, 13, 747-48; Higgs (Labor, Capricornia, Qld), 23 April 1914, HoRD, 73, 256.
46. Charles McDonald (Labor, Kennedy, Qld) and Deakin, 18 June 1903, HoRD, 13, 1126.
47. Cook and Barton, 13 Aug. 1903, HoRD, 15, 3546.
48. Barton, 8 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 14, 4749, and 22 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 16, 5273; Drake, 23 Sept. 1903; SD, 16, 5329; Pulsford and Alexander Matheson (FT. WA), 23 Sept. 1903, SD, 16, 5372-73.
49. Barton, 8 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 14, 4749, and 22 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 16, 5273; Drake, 23 Sept. 1903; SD, 16, 5329; Pulsford and Alexander Matheson (FT. WA), 23 Sept. 1903, SD, 16, 5372-73.
50. Barton, 8 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 14, 4749, and 22 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 16, 5273; Drake, 23 Sept. 1903; SD, 16, 5329; Pulsford and Alexander Matheson (FT. WA), 23 Sept. 1903, SD, 16, 5372-73.
51. Barton, 8 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 14, 4749, and 22 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 16, 5273; Drake, 23 Sept. 1903; SD, 16, 5329; Pulsford and Alexander Matheson (FT. WA), 23 Sept. 1903, SD, 16, 5372-73.
52. Barton, 8 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 14, 4749, and 22 Sept. 1903, HoRD, 16, 5273; Drake, 23 Sept. 1903; SD, 16, 5329; Pulsford and Alexander Matheson (FT. WA), 23 Sept. 1903, SD, 16, 5372-73.
53. Australian Archives (ACT): Department of External Affairs [I]. Melbourne: CRS A1 Correspondence files, annual single number series, 1903-38; A1/1 1904/39 Copies of telegrams between Deakin and Chamberlain, 30-31 Dec. 1903.
54. Hall, Manufacturers, 198.
55. Deakin, 3 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 110-11. Emphasis added. See also Deakin, 8 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8094-97.
56. Deakin, 3 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 110-11. Emphasis added. See also Deakin, 8 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8094-97.
57. Sir W. Keith Hancock, Survey of British Commonwealth Affairs, vol. 2, part 1 (London, 1940), 85.
58. 'The Possibilities of an Australian Preference', The Free Trader, 25 March 1904; 'The Colonial Market and Imperial Preference', The Free Trader, 7 Oct. 1904.
59. 'The Possibilities of an Australian Preference', The Free Trader, 25 March 1904; 'The Colonial Market and Imperial Preference', The Free Trader, 7 Oct. 1904.
60. Sir W. Keith Hancock, Australia (London, 1930), 260-61.
61. Samuel Mauger (Prot, Melbourne Ports, then Maribyrnong, Vic), 2 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 20.
62. Deakin and others particularly spoke to the two motions carried at the 1902 Conference which materially supported preference: one advocating preference to promote and develop the resources of the Empire; and the other extolling Britain to implement a tariff preference. Lyne, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8491. See Hancock, Survey, 89. Deakin had been pursuing the matter since the Imperial Conference of 1887: see the Tariff Commission, The Problem of the Imperial Conference and the Policy of Preference (London, 1911), 12; Tariff Commission Collection, British Library of Political and Economic Science, TC8 2. 'B' Folders - General Reference Papers, 2/4 B31 1907, 'Colonial Views'.
63. Deakin and others particularly spoke to the two motions carried at the 1902 Conference which materially supported preference: one advocating preference to promote and develop the resources of the Empire; and the other extolling Britain to implement a tariff preference. Lyne, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8491. See Hancock, Survey, 89. Deakin had been pursuing the matter since the Imperial Conference of 1887: see the Tariff Commission, The Problem of the Imperial Conference and the Policy of Preference (London, 1911), 12; Tariff Commission Collection, British Library of Political and Economic Science, TC8 2. 'B' Folders - General Reference Papers, 2/4 B31 1907, 'Colonial Views'.
64. Deakin and others particularly spoke to the two motions carried at the 1902 Conference which materially supported preference: one advocating preference to promote and develop the resources of the Empire; and the other extolling Britain to implement a tariff preference. Lyne, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8491. See Hancock, Survey, 89. Deakin had been pursuing the matter since the Imperial Conference of 1887: see the Tariff Commission, The Problem of the Imperial Conference and the Policy of Preference (London, 1911), 12; Tariff Commission Collection, British Library of Political and Economic Science, TC8 2. 'B' Folders - General Reference Papers, 2/4 B31 1907, 'Colonial Views'.
65. W. J. Lyne, Imperial Reciprocity, Delivered... before the Preferential Trade League, Sydney, in the Royal Society Rooms, 6 April 1904 (Sydney, 1904), 7, 22.
66. A. Sykes, Tariff Reform in British Politics, 1903-13 (Oxford, 1979), 31-33.
67. Dugald Thomson (FT, North Sydney, NSW), 3 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 127.
68. William Kelly (FT, Wentworth, NSW) and Glynn, 9 March 1904 HoRD, 18, 307, 329. However, New Zealand did extend the preference to other Empire nations. Hancock, Survey, 87, fn. 2.
69. William Kelly (FT, Wentworth, NSW) and Glynn, 9 March 1904 HoRD, 18, 307, 329. However, New Zealand did extend the preference to other Empire nations. Hancock, Survey, 87, fn. 2.
70. William Johnson (Labor, Robertson, NSW), 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 203; Pulsford, 13 Dec. 1904, SD, 24, 8231-40.
71. William Johnson (Labor, Robertson, NSW), 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 203; Pulsford, 13 Dec. 1904, SD, 24, 8231-40.
72. Glynn, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8481; 28 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2404, and 10 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4548.
73. Glynn, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8481; 28 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2404, and 10 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4548.
74. Glynn, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8481; 28 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2404, and 10 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4548.
75. Watson, 4 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 147.
76. Wilks, 17 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4881.
77. A. L. Friedberg, The Weary Titan (Princeton, 1988), 48.
78. J. Tomlinson, Problems of British Economic Policy 1870-1945 (London, 1981), 52.
79. R. Quinault, 'Joseph Chamberlain: A Reassessment', in T. R. Gourvish and A. O'Day (eds.), Later Victorian Britain, 1867-1900 (London, 1988), 88.
80. Hall, Manufacturers, 186.
81. Reitsma, Trade Protection, 49.
82. Thompson and Deakin, 8 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5879; Deakin, 9 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5959-60; Wilks, 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 216; F. W. Eggleston, 'Australia and the Empire, 1855-1921', in J. Holland-Rose, A. P. Newton, E. A. Benians and E. Scott (eds.), The Cambridge Histon of the British Empire, VII, 1: Australia (Cambridge, 1933). 537-78.
83. Thompson and Deakin, 8 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5879; Deakin, 9 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5959-60; Wilks, 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 216; F. W. Eggleston, 'Australia and the Empire, 1855-1921', in J. Holland-Rose, A. P. Newton, E. A. Benians and E. Scott (eds.), The Cambridge Histon of the British Empire, VII, 1: Australia (Cambridge, 1933). 537-78.
84. Thompson and Deakin, 8 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5879; Deakin, 9 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5959-60; Wilks, 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 216; F. W. Eggleston, 'Australia and the Empire, 1855-1921', in J. Holland-Rose, A. P. Newton, E. A. Benians and E. Scott (eds.), The Cambridge Histon of the British Empire, VII, 1: Australia (Cambridge, 1933). 537-78.
85. Thompson and Deakin, 8 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5879; Deakin, 9 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5959-60; Wilks, 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 216; F. W. Eggleston, 'Australia and the Empire, 1855-1921', in J. Holland-Rose, A. P. Newton, E. A. Benians and E. Scott (eds.), The Cambridge Histon of the British Empire, VII, 1: Australia (Cambridge, 1933). 537-78.
86. Thompson and Deakin, 8 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5879; Deakin, 9 Oct. 1903, HoRD, 17, 5959-60; Wilks, 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 216; F. W. Eggleston, 'Australia and the Empire, 1855-1921', in J. Holland-Rose, A. P. Newton, E. A. Benians and E. Scott (eds.), The Cambridge Histon of the British Empire, VII, 1: Australia (Cambridge, 1933). 537-78.
87. M. W. Lowe, The British Tariff Movement (Washington, D. C., 1942), 12; V. F. Cleary, British Imperial Preference in Relation to Australia (Washington, D. C., 1934), 6.
88. M. W. Lowe, The British Tariff Movement (Washington, D. C., 1942), 12; V. F. Cleary, British Imperial Preference in Relation to Australia (Washington, D. C., 1934), 6.
89. Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, 218-20.
90. A. C. Pigou, Protective and Preferential Import Duties (London, 1906), 108.
91. Deakin, 8 Nov. 1905, HoRD, 28, 4788.
92. J. A. La Nauze, Alfred Deakin: A Biography, 2 (Melbourne, 1965), 425.
93. Reid, 22 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4991; see also criticism of Reid by C. H. Chomley of the Australian Free Trade and Liberal Association, 'Australian Free Traders and Preferential Tariffs', The Free Trader, 2 Oct. 1903.
94. Reid, 22 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4991; see also criticism of Reid by C. H. Chomley of the Australian Free Trade and Liberal Association, 'Australian Free Traders and Preferential Tariffs', The Free Trader, 2 Oct. 1903.
95. See the schedule presented to parliament, 30 Aug. 1906, HoRD, 33, 3705-6.
96. O'Keefe, 15 June 1906, SD, 31, 262.
97. See, for example, the composition of trade for 1907, a peak year for New Zealand exports to Australia in the era. Australia, Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, no. 2 (Melbourne, 1909), 599-611.
98. Cook, 19 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4893. See also the submission made by Kelly, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4568-69, which put the advantage to New Zealand at £61,732 (the value of goods subject to lower duties) and the disadvantage to Britain at £130,767 through the New Zealand Agreement.
99. Cook, 19 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4893. See also the submission made by Kelly, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4568-69, which put the advantage to New Zealand at £61,732 (the value of goods subject to lower duties) and the disadvantage to Britain at £130,767 through the New Zealand Agreement.
100. Thomas, 12 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4467.
101. Smith, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4615. The proposed Agreement was sceptically received elsewhere, before it was presented to Parliament. 'An Australian View', The Free Trader, 19 April 1904.
102. Smith, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4615. The proposed Agreement was sceptically received elsewhere, before it was presented to Parliament. 'An Australian View', The Free Trader, 19 April 1904.
103. Cook. 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 188-89; See also his comments about the New Zealand Agreement in the same vein. Cook, 30 Aug. 1906, HoRD, 33, 3703.
104. Cook. 8 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 188-89; See also his comments about the New Zealand Agreement in the same vein. Cook, 30 Aug. 1906, HoRD, 33, 3703.
105. Cook, 28 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2476.
106. McLean, 19 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4869.
107. Deakin, 3 Oct. 1906 HoRD, 35, 5902; Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359.
108. Deakin, 3 Oct. 1906 HoRD, 35, 5902; Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359.
109. This proposal was a very much more limited measure, compared to the Canadian-British preference, covering 30 per cent of imports in the same year. E. Pulsford, The Preferential Proposals of the Deakin Government with regard to the United Kingdom and New Zealand (Melbourne, 1906), 6.
110. Deakin, 30 Aug. 1906, HoRD, 33, 3701.
111. Deakin, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4587; Sir W. Keith Hancock, The Commonwealth, 1900-1914' (1933), in Holland-Rose, et. al., Australia, 531, and Eggleston, 'Australia', 538.
112. Deakin, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4587; Sir W. Keith Hancock, The Commonwealth, 1900-1914' (1933), in Holland-Rose, et. al., Australia, 531, and Eggleston, 'Australia', 538.
113. Deakin, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4587; Sir W. Keith Hancock, The Commonwealth, 1900-1914' (1933), in Holland-Rose, et. al., Australia, 531, and Eggleston, 'Australia', 538.
114. Cook, 19 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4893; Kelly, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4568-9.
115. Cook, 19 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4893; Kelly, 13 Sept. 1906, HoRD, 34, 4568-9.
116. McLean, 5 Oct. 1906, HoRD, 35, 6168.
117. E. Pulsford, Commerce and the Empire (London, 1917), 154-55, 159.
118. Cook, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8539, and 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5053; Lonsdale, 8 Nov. 1905, HoRD, 28, 4763-64; Edward Millen (FT, NSW), 4 July 1907, SD, 36, 52-53; Robert Patten (Liberal, Hume, NSW), 11 Dec. 1914, HoRD, 75, 1683.
119. Cook, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8539, and 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5053; Lonsdale, 8 Nov. 1905, HoRD, 28, 4763-64; Edward Millen (FT, NSW), 4 July 1907, SD, 36, 52-53; Robert Patten (Liberal, Hume, NSW), 11 Dec. 1914, HoRD, 75, 1683.
120. Cook, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8539, and 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5053; Lonsdale, 8 Nov. 1905, HoRD, 28, 4763-64; Edward Millen (FT, NSW), 4 July 1907, SD, 36, 52-53; Robert Patten (Liberal, Hume, NSW), 11 Dec. 1914, HoRD, 75, 1683.
121. Cook, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8539, and 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5053; Lonsdale, 8 Nov. 1905, HoRD, 28, 4763-64; Edward Millen (FT, NSW), 4 July 1907, SD, 36, 52-53; Robert Patten (Liberal, Hume, NSW), 11 Dec. 1914, HoRD, 75, 1683.
122. Cook, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8539, and 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5053; Lonsdale, 8 Nov. 1905, HoRD, 28, 4763-64; Edward Millen (FT, NSW), 4 July 1907, SD, 36, 52-53; Robert Patten (Liberal, Hume, NSW), 11 Dec. 1914, HoRD, 75, 1683.
123. For example, Sir Littleton Groom (Prot, Darling Downs, Qld), 11 Dec. 1914, HoRD, 75, 1665.
124. Deakin, 30 Aug. 1906, HoRD, 33, 3700.
125. Kingston, 11 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 474.
126. Lyne, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8489.
127. Deakin, 30 Aug. 1906, HoRD, 33, 3702.
128. Pulsford, 14 June 1906, SD, 31, 189.
129. Francis Foster (Labor, New England, NSW), 17 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4880.
130. Poynton, 14 Dec. 1904, HoRD, 24, 8499.
131. The Customs Tariff (South African Preference) Act (No. 17 of 1906) extended a preference to 46 items under the 1901-02 Tariff originating from South Africa. This offered a reduction of generally 25 per cent of the fixed duties operating (rising in some cases to 50 per cent, as with dried fish and fruit), and five per cent on ad valorem rates. It, like most of the measurers of this type, received a rebuke as operating against the empire's wider interest, including comment from The Economist. See The Free Trader, 3 Nov. 1905. The South African preference was reconfirmed by a second Customs Act of 1908 (Amendment Act. No. 13 of 1908), following the main bill, which also clarified ambiguities of interpretation under the Lyne tariff.
132. Australia was relatively late amongst the Empire's colonies in operating a British preference. Other dominions (most notably New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa) had previously favoured British exports with lower rates of duty, ranging from an average three per cent margin in South Africa to 12 per cent in New Zealand. There were also attempts by India to install an Imperial preference. However, they were more constrained in the scope they had to set their own tariffs than the 'White' Dominions. See R. Lethbridge, The Indian Offer of Imperial Preference (London, 1913).
133. For example, Sir Thomas Ewing (Prot, Richmond, NSW), 4 March 1904, HoRD, 18, 163.
134. Fisher, 10 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4562.
135. Hancock, Australia, 50.
136. Charles Frazer (Labor, Kalgoorlie, WA), 29 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2589; Deakin, HoRD, 22 Oct. 1907, 40, 5005; Sir Robert Best (Prot, Kooyong, Vic), 22 Jan. 1908, SD, 43, 7558.
137. Charles Frazer (Labor, Kalgoorlie, WA), 29 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2589; Deakin, HoRD, 22 Oct. 1907, 40, 5005; Sir Robert Best (Prot, Kooyong, Vic), 22 Jan. 1908, SD, 43, 7558.
138. Charles Frazer (Labor, Kalgoorlie, WA), 29 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2589; Deakin, HoRD, 22 Oct. 1907, 40, 5005; Sir Robert Best (Prot, Kooyong, Vic), 22 Jan. 1908, SD, 43, 7558.
139. Wilks, 30 Aug. 1907 HoRD, 38, 2669.
140. Ibid. 2674; Sir John Forrest (Prot, then WA Party, Swan, WA) 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5076 and John Gray (FT, NSW), 11 July 1907, SD, 36, 371.
141. Ibid. 2674; Sir John Forrest (Prot, then WA Party, Swan, WA) 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5076 and John Gray (FT, NSW), 11 July 1907, SD, 36, 371.
142. Ibid. 2674; Sir John Forrest (Prot, then WA Party, Swan, WA) 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5076 and John Gray (FT, NSW), 11 July 1907, SD, 36, 371.
143. Deakin, 22 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5006.
144. Foster, 17 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 4879.
145. Deakin, 22 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5011; Lyne, 14 July 1907, HoRD, 36, 101.
146. Deakin, 22 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5011; Lyne, 14 July 1907, HoRD, 36, 101.
147. Tariff Commission, The New Australian Tariff (London, 1907), 1-2.
148. Lyne, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2150. See also Lyne, 8 Aug. 1908, HoRD, 37, 1646, where he set out the major tariff items affected by the preferential proposals. They largely were made up of manufactured products in textiles, iron, agricultural machinery and machinery generally, iron pipes, paints, glass and earthenware, furniture, boots and leather, watches and jewellery, hats, caps, pianos and bicycles.
149. Lyne, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2150. See also Lyne, 8 Aug. 1908, HoRD, 37, 1646, where he set out the major tariff items affected by the preferential proposals. They largely were made up of manufactured products in textiles, iron, agricultural machinery and machinery generally, iron pipes, paints, glass and earthenware, furniture, boots and leather, watches and jewellery, hats, caps, pianos and bicycles.
150. The Australian Preference', Monthly Notes on Tariff Reform, Jan.-June 1908, 8, Birmingham Edn.
151. The New Australian Tariff', ibid., July-Dec. 1907, 7, Birmingham Edn.
152. The Australian Preference', ibid., July-Dec. 1907, 7, London Edn.
153. 'Mr. Bonar Law on the Australian Tariff', ibid., Jan.-June 1908, 7, Birmingham Edn. Possibly the most strident, and uncritical, praise for the preference in the Lyne tariff came from the Tariff Reform League, How Australia Helps the British Working Man (London, 1907). Designed to sway the working voter, it conveniently omitted to mention that any tariffs had been increased against British goods.
154. 'Mr. Bonar Law on the Australian Tariff', ibid., Jan.-June 1908, 7, Birmingham Edn. Possibly the most strident, and uncritical, praise for the preference in the Lyne tariff came from the Tariff Reform League, How Australia Helps the British Working Man (London, 1907). Designed to sway the working voter, it conveniently omitted to mention that any tariffs had been increased against British goods.
155. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
156. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
157. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
158. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
159. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
160. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
161. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
162. C. F. Bickerdike, 'Review of "The New Australian Tariff', Economic Journal, 18 (1908), 92-93. The opponents of preference in the Australian Federal Parliament took pleasure in relating to the House opinion drawn from Britain newspapers and journals. See for instance Smith, 11 Dec. 1907, HoRD, 36, 424-25, 442-43; Reid, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2138; Sir William Johnson (FT. then Anti-Socialist, Lang, NSW), 23 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2311; Cook, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5056-57; Glynn, 23 Oct. 1907, HoRD, 40, 5073. See also criticism of the Australian debate in Britain: 'Imperialism - Old and New', The Free Trader, 15 June 1909; Cobden Club, Memorandum from the Cobden Club on the Futility of Preference (London, 1911).
163. Reitsma, Trade Protection, 49.
164. Pulsford, Commerce, 205-06.
165. Wilks and Lyne, 21 Aug. 1907, HoRD, 38, 2123.
166. Pulsford, Commerce, 145.
167. British Parliamentary Papers, Trade of Canada. Board of Trade - Commercial Intelligence Committee. Report Upon the Conditions and Prospects of British Trade in Canada by Mr. Richard Grigg (London, 1908), 71, Cd. 3868, 755-57; British Parliamentary Papers, Trade of Canada. Report to the Board of Trade on the Trade of the Dominion of Canada for the Period from 1st July 1906 to 31st March, 1910 by His Majesty's Trade Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada (Mr. Richard Grigg) (London, 1911). 53. Cd. 5591. 125-27, 140-1.
168. British Parliamentary Papers, Trade of Canada. Board of Trade - Commercial Intelligence Committee. Report Upon the Conditions and Prospects of British Trade in Canada by Mr. Richard Grigg (London, 1908), 71, Cd. 3868, 755-57; British Parliamentary Papers, Trade of Canada. Report to the Board of Trade on the Trade of the Dominion of Canada for the Period from 1st July 1906 to 31st March, 1910 by His Majesty's Trade Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada (Mr. Richard Grigg) (London, 1911). 53. Cd. 5591. 125-27, 140-1.
169. Australia. Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Commonwealth Year Book, 1909.632.
170. This was not an issue when an ad valorem (or percentage) duties applied. It was a different issue where a fixed duty operated. Based on the quantity of an item imported, the preference would only manifest itself if the import price of the British and non-British goods were identical, or very similar. It is possible that if the non-British good was of a higher price than its British equivalent, then the ad valorem equivalent tariff rate (the amount of duty paid divided by the import price and expressed as a percentage) might be lower than the calculation on British imports. For example, in 1909, the duty on biscuits was Id per Ib for the British Preference, and 1.5d per Ib under the General Tariff. This gave ad valorem equivalents of 10.29 per cent and 24.77 per cent, respectively. For wicker chairs in the same year, with a British Preference of 6s 9d per chair, and a General Tariff of 7s 6d. the ad valorem equivalents came to 150.63 per cent and 103.37 per cent for the two. This illustrates the potential problem.
171. Australia. Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Commonwealth Year Book. 1909,632.633-4.
172. Australia. Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, no. 9 (Melbourne. 1916). 583.
173. Further statistical information in this section is drawn from the Commonwealth Year Books 1910-4 and 1916. predominantly from no. 3 (1910). 631-2; no. 4 (1911), 647-8: no. 5 ( 1912). 637-8; no. 6 (1913), 630-1; no. 7 (1914). 630-1; and no. 9(1916), 551-2.
174. Further statistical information in this section is drawn from the Commonwealth Year Books 1910-4 and 1916. predominantly from no. 3 (1910). 631-2; no. 4 (1911), 647-8: no. 5 ( 1912). 637-8; no. 6 (1913), 630-1; no. 7 (1914). 630-1; and no. 9(1916), 551-2.
175. Further statistical information in this section is drawn from the Commonwealth Year Books 1910-4 and 1916. predominantly from no. 3 (1910). 631-2; no. 4 (1911), 647-8: no. 5 ( 1912). 637-8; no. 6 (1913), 630-1; no. 7 (1914). 630-1; and no. 9(1916), 551-2.
176. Further statistical information in this section is drawn from the Commonwealth Year Books 1910-4 and 1916. predominantly from no. 3 (1910). 631-2; no. 4 (1911), 647-8: no. 5 ( 1912). 637-8; no. 6 (1913), 630-1; no. 7 (1914). 630-1; and no. 9(1916), 551-2.
177. Further statistical information in this section is drawn from the Commonwealth Year Books 1910-4 and 1916. predominantly from no. 3 (1910). 631-2; no. 4 (1911), 647-8: no. 5 ( 1912). 637-8; no. 6 (1913), 630-1; no. 7 (1914). 630-1; and no. 9(1916), 551-2.
178. Further statistical information in this section is drawn from the Commonwealth Year Books 1910-4 and 1916. predominantly from no. 3 (1910). 631-2; no. 4 (1911), 647-8: no. 5 ( 1912). 637-8; no. 6 (1913), 630-1; no. 7 (1914). 630-1; and no. 9(1916), 551-2.
179. Further statistical information in this section is drawn from the Commonwealth Year Books 1910-4 and 1916. predominantly from no. 3 (1910). 631-2; no. 4 (1911), 647-8: no. 5 ( 1912). 637-8; no. 6 (1913), 630-1; no. 7 (1914). 630-1; and no. 9(1916), 551-2.
180. The culmination of this process was reached with the large increases associated with the Ottawa agreement in 1932/33. when over 90 per cent of British imports were subject to a preference, running at an average of 16.2 per cent ad valorem in 1934-5. See Cleary, British Imperial Preference, 10-11; Fitzpatrick, British Empire, 457.
181. The culmination of this process was reached with the large increases associated with the Ottawa agreement in 1932/33. when over 90 per cent of British imports were subject to a preference, running at an average of 16.2 per cent ad valorem in 1934-5. See Cleary, British Imperial Preference, 10-11; Fitzpatrick, British Empire, 457.
182. Reitsma, Trade Protection, 62.
183. Sykes, Tariff Reform, 36.
184. Pulsford, Commerce, 133, 141-12, 146.
185. Tomlinson, British Economic Policy, 57.
186. Hancock, Survey, 91.
187. Pulsford, Commerce, 137-9.
188. The New Australian "Offer"', The Free Trader. 15 Dec. 1910.
189. The Australian Tariff, The Free Trader. 15 Jan. 1911.
190. Lyne, 12 Dec. 1911, HoRD, 63, 4152-3; Pulsford. Commerce, 203 and Hancock, Survey, 89-90.
191. Lyne, 12 Dec. 1911, HoRD, 63, 4152-3; Pulsford. Commerce, 203 and Hancock, Survey, 89-90.
192. Lyne, 12 Dec. 1911, HoRD, 63, 4152-3; Pulsford. Commerce, 203 and Hancock, Survey, 89-90.
193. Pulsford, Preferential Proposals. 6.
194. Pulsford, 27 May 1908, SD, 46, 11487.
195. Gregor McGregor (Labor. SA) and Pulsford, 8 Dec. 1908. SD. 48, 2795.
196. The Failure of the Tariff, The Free Trader, 21 Nov. 1912.
197. Although with the pressure of business during wartime, these were not formally legislated until 1917 (Customs Tariff Validation . No. 6 of 1917).
198. Reitsma, Trade Protection, 51.
199. Forster. C. 1953. 'Australian Manufacturing and the War of 1914-18', Economic Record. 29, no. 57, 226-7.
200. Fisher, 6 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 131; Finlayson, 8 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 226; Best, 13 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 387. Best had strong hopes for this initiative: 'We hope there is a common aim and object, so far as Australia and the various other Dominions are concerned - namely, to strengthen the ties of race and blood.'
201. Fisher, 6 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 131; Finlayson, 8 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 226; Best, 13 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 387. Best had strong hopes for this initiative: 'We hope there is a common aim and object, so far as Australia and the various other Dominions are concerned - namely, to strengthen the ties of race and blood.'
202. Fisher, 6 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 131; Finlayson, 8 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 226; Best, 13 Sept. 1911, HoRD, 60, 387. Best had strong hopes for this initiative: 'We hope there is a common aim and object, so far as Australia and the various other Dominions are concerned - namely, to strengthen the ties of race and blood.'
203. For example James McColl (Anti-Socialist, Vic), 13 Sept. 1911, SD, 60, 355: 'I am very glad to see that the Government are proposing reciprocal trade relations with Canada and New Zealand. ... There is no market more tempting than the Canadian market.'
204. Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359; Fisher, 20 June 1912, HoRD, 64, 58 and 1 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 1586-87. Sydney Sampson (Independent Protectionist, Wimmera, Vic), 28 July 1912, HoRD, 64, 298-99. Sampson questioned New Zealand's commitment to the principle, given the preferential treatment they gave their own timber on their own railway system. Groom, Tudor and Higgs, 9 Oct. 1912, HoRD, 66, 3998-99; 'Australia and New Zealand', The Free Trader, 2 June 1912.
205. Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359; Fisher, 20 June 1912, HoRD, 64, 58 and 1 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 1586-87. Sydney Sampson (Independent Protectionist, Wimmera, Vic), 28 July 1912, HoRD, 64, 298-99. Sampson questioned New Zealand's commitment to the principle, given the preferential treatment they gave their own timber on their own railway system. Groom, Tudor and Higgs, 9 Oct. 1912, HoRD, 66, 3998-99; 'Australia and New Zealand', The Free Trader, 2 June 1912.
206. Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359; Fisher, 20 June 1912, HoRD, 64, 58 and 1 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 1586-87. Sydney Sampson (Independent Protectionist, Wimmera, Vic), 28 July 1912, HoRD, 64, 298-99. Sampson questioned New Zealand's commitment to the principle, given the preferential treatment they gave their own timber on their own railway system. Groom, Tudor and Higgs, 9 Oct. 1912, HoRD, 66, 3998-99; 'Australia and New Zealand', The Free Trader, 2 June 1912.
207. Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359; Fisher, 20 June 1912, HoRD, 64, 58 and 1 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 1586-87. Sydney Sampson (Independent Protectionist, Wimmera, Vic), 28 July 1912, HoRD, 64, 298-99. Sampson questioned New Zealand's commitment to the principle, given the preferential treatment they gave their own timber on their own railway system. Groom, Tudor and Higgs, 9 Oct. 1912, HoRD, 66, 3998-99; 'Australia and New Zealand', The Free Trader, 2 June 1912.
208. Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359; Fisher, 20 June 1912, HoRD, 64, 58 and 1 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 1586-87. Sydney Sampson (Independent Protectionist, Wimmera, Vic), 28 July 1912, HoRD, 64, 298-99. Sampson questioned New Zealand's commitment to the principle, given the preferential treatment they gave their own timber on their own railway system. Groom, Tudor and Higgs, 9 Oct. 1912, HoRD, 66, 3998-99; 'Australia and New Zealand', The Free Trader, 2 June 1912.
209. Deakin, 20 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 2359; Fisher, 20 June 1912, HoRD, 64, 58 and 1 Aug. 1912, HoRD, 65, 1586-87. Sydney Sampson (Independent Protectionist, Wimmera, Vic), 28 July 1912, HoRD, 64, 298-99. Sampson questioned New Zealand's commitment to the principle, given the preferential treatment they gave their own timber on their own railway system. Groom, Tudor and Higgs, 9 Oct. 1912, HoRD, 66, 3998-99; 'Australia and New Zealand', The Free Trader, 2 June 1912.
210. Finlayson, 26 Aug. 1913, HoRD, 70, 471 and 4 Dec. 1913, HoRD, 72, 3791.
211. Finlayson, 26 Aug. 1913, HoRD, 70, 471 and 4 Dec. 1913, HoRD, 72, 3791.
212. Pulsford, Commerce, 137-39, 153.