Permanent replacements and the breakdown of the "social accord" in Calera, Alabama, 1974-1999

Labor History

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 371-396

  Minchin, Timothy J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035603683     PISSN: 0023656X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00236560120085101     Document Type: Review

References (208)

1. Tyrone Perkins, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; "Roberta Hourly Employees - Ages and Years of Service," Oct. 11, 1993, untitled folder, Local 50537 Papers, held at Local 50537 Union Hall, Calera, Alabama, hereinafter cited as Local 50537 Papers.
2. Tyrone Perkins, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; "Roberta Hourly Employees - Ages and Years of Service," Oct. 11, 1993, untitled folder, Local 50537 Papers, held at Local 50537 Union Hall, Calera, Alabama, hereinafter cited as Local 50537 Papers.
3. The air traffic controllers belonged to the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO). For details of the PATCO strike, see Herbert R. Northrup and Amie D. Thornton, The Federal Government as Employer: The Federal Labor Relations Authority and the PATCO Challenge (Pennsylvania, PA: Industrial Research Unit, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, 1988); Arthur B. Shostak and David Skocik, The Air Controllers' Controversy: Lessons from the PATCO Strike (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986). For a contemporary view that the PATCO strike encouraged the hiring of permanent replacements, see Eileen Boris and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Workers (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1991), 598-600. For historians' views that Reagan's treatment of the PATCO strike encouraged employers to hire permanent replacements, see, for example, Robert H. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions (2nd ed.) (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 198; William C. Berman, America's Right Turn from Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 98. Robert Reich, Secretary of Labor during the first Clinton administration, also linked the increased hiring of permanent replacements to the PATCO dispute. See also U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Legislative Hearing on HR 5, 103 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1993), 16-17.
4. The air traffic controllers belonged to the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO). For details of the PATCO strike, see Herbert R. Northrup and Amie D. Thornton, The Federal Government as Employer: The Federal Labor Relations Authority and the PATCO Challenge (Pennsylvania, PA: Industrial Research Unit, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, 1988); Arthur B. Shostak and David Skocik, The Air Controllers' Controversy: Lessons from the PATCO Strike (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986). For a contemporary view that the PATCO strike encouraged the hiring of permanent replacements, see Eileen Boris and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Workers (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1991), 598-600. For historians' views that Reagan's treatment of the PATCO strike encouraged employers to hire permanent replacements, see, for example, Robert H. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions (2nd ed.) (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 198; William C. Berman, America's Right Turn from Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 98. Robert Reich, Secretary of Labor during the first Clinton administration, also linked the increased hiring of permanent replacements to the PATCO dispute. See also U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Legislative Hearing on HR 5, 103 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1993), 16-17.
5. The air traffic controllers belonged to the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO). For details of the PATCO strike, see Herbert R. Northrup and Amie D. Thornton, The Federal Government as Employer: The Federal Labor Relations Authority and the PATCO Challenge (Pennsylvania, PA: Industrial Research Unit, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, 1988); Arthur B. Shostak and David Skocik, The Air Controllers' Controversy: Lessons from the PATCO Strike (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986). For a contemporary view that the PATCO strike encouraged the hiring of permanent replacements, see Eileen Boris and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Workers (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1991), 598-600. For historians' views that Reagan's treatment of the PATCO strike encouraged employers to hire permanent replacements, see, for example, Robert H. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions (2nd ed.) (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 198; William C. Berman, America's Right Turn from Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 98. Robert Reich, Secretary of Labor during the first Clinton administration, also linked the increased hiring of permanent replacements to the PATCO dispute. See also U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Legislative Hearing on HR 5, 103 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1993), 16-17.
6. The air traffic controllers belonged to the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO). For details of the PATCO strike, see Herbert R. Northrup and Amie D. Thornton, The Federal Government as Employer: The Federal Labor Relations Authority and the PATCO Challenge (Pennsylvania, PA: Industrial Research Unit, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, 1988); Arthur B. Shostak and David Skocik, The Air Controllers' Controversy: Lessons from the PATCO Strike (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986). For a contemporary view that the PATCO strike encouraged the hiring of permanent replacements, see Eileen Boris and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Workers (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1991), 598-600. For historians' views that Reagan's treatment of the PATCO strike encouraged employers to hire permanent replacements, see, for example, Robert H. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions (2nd ed.) (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 198; William C. Berman, America's Right Turn from Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 98. Robert Reich, Secretary of Labor during the first Clinton administration, also linked the increased hiring of permanent replacements to the PATCO dispute. See also U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Legislative Hearing on HR 5, 103 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1993), 16-17.
7. The air traffic controllers belonged to the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO). For details of the PATCO strike, see Herbert R. Northrup and Amie D. Thornton, The Federal Government as Employer: The Federal Labor Relations Authority and the PATCO Challenge (Pennsylvania, PA: Industrial Research Unit, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, 1988); Arthur B. Shostak and David Skocik, The Air Controllers' Controversy: Lessons from the PATCO Strike (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986). For a contemporary view that the PATCO strike encouraged the hiring of permanent replacements, see Eileen Boris and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Workers (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1991), 598-600. For historians' views that Reagan's treatment of the PATCO strike encouraged employers to hire permanent replacements, see, for example, Robert H. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions (2nd ed.) (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 198; William C. Berman, America's Right Turn from Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 98. Robert Reich, Secretary of Labor during the first Clinton administration, also linked the increased hiring of permanent replacements to the PATCO dispute. See also U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Legislative Hearing on HR 5, 103 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1993), 16-17.
8. The air traffic controllers belonged to the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO). For details of the PATCO strike, see Herbert R. Northrup and Amie D. Thornton, The Federal Government as Employer: The Federal Labor Relations Authority and the PATCO Challenge (Pennsylvania, PA: Industrial Research Unit, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, 1988); Arthur B. Shostak and David Skocik, The Air Controllers' Controversy: Lessons from the PATCO Strike (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986). For a contemporary view that the PATCO strike encouraged the hiring of permanent replacements, see Eileen Boris and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Workers (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1991), 598-600. For historians' views that Reagan's treatment of the PATCO strike encouraged employers to hire permanent replacements, see, for example, Robert H. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions (2nd ed.) (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 198; William C. Berman, America's Right Turn from Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 98. Robert Reich, Secretary of Labor during the first Clinton administration, also linked the increased hiring of permanent replacements to the PATCO dispute. See also U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Legislative Hearing on HR 5, 103 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1993), 16-17.
9. "The Strikers Strike out: From Paper Mills to Football Fields, Workers Find They're Replaceable," U.S. News and World Report, Oct. 26, 1987, 41-2; Zieger, American Workers, American Unions, 198-200.
10. "The Strikers Strike out: From Paper Mills to Football Fields, Workers Find They're Replaceable," U.S. News and World Report, Oct. 26, 1987, 41-2; Zieger, American Workers, American Unions, 198-200.
11. Employers' right to hire permanent replacements originated in the MacKay Radio v. National Labor Relations Board Supreme Court decision of 1938. The decision, while ordering that several workers be reinstated in this particular instance, volunteered language in its decision that it is not an unfair labor practice to permanently replace striking workers. Prior to the 1980s, however, the use of permanent replacements was very rare and was mainly limited to smaller companies not susceptible to widespread public pressure. The position of unions was slightly strengthened in the late 1960s when the National Labor Relations Board ruled in the Laidlaw case that economic strikers who are permanently replaced are, after the end of the dispute, entitled to reinstatement when openings occur among the new workforce. The Paperworker, April 1991, 1; Boris and Lichtenstein, 598-599; Philip Mattera to Corporate Campaign, Nov. 14, 1988, "Replacement Workers," file, United Paperworkers' International Union (UPIU) Papers, held at the Paper, Allied-Industrial, Chemical, and Energy Workers' International Union headquarters in Nashville, Tennessee, hereinafter cited as UPIU Papers. In 1999, the UPIU merged with the Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers' International Union to form the Paper, Allied-Industrial, Chemical, and Energy Workers' International Union (PACE).
12. Employers' right to hire permanent replacements originated in the MacKay Radio v. National Labor Relations Board Supreme Court decision of 1938. The decision, while ordering that several workers be reinstated in this particular instance, volunteered language in its decision that it is not an unfair labor practice to permanently replace striking workers. Prior to the 1980s, however, the use of permanent replacements was very rare and was mainly limited to smaller companies not susceptible to widespread public pressure. The position of unions was slightly strengthened in the late 1960s when the National Labor Relations Board ruled in the Laidlaw case that economic strikers who are permanently replaced are, after the end of the dispute, entitled to reinstatement when openings occur among the new workforce. The Paperworker, April 1991, 1; Boris and Lichtenstein, 598-599; Philip Mattera to Corporate Campaign, Nov. 14, 1988, "Replacement Workers," file, United Paperworkers' International Union (UPIU) Papers, held at the Paper, Allied-Industrial, Chemical, and Energy Workers' International Union headquarters in Nashville, Tennessee, hereinafter cited as UPIU Papers. In 1999, the UPIU merged with the Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers' International Union to form the Paper, Allied-Industrial, Chemical, and Energy Workers' International Union (PACE).
13. For details of this campaign, and the strikes which produced it, see Martin Halpern, "Arkansas and the Defeat of Labor Law Reform in 1978 and 1994," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 57 (1998), 99-133; "Stop Scabs, Union Leaders Demand in Washington," The Paperworker, April 1989, 12-13; "IUD Legislative Conference: Enact the Congressional Prohibition on Striker Replacements," The Paperworker, April 1991, 10-11; "Scab Ban Legislation High on the Agenda," The Paperworker, April 1994, 11.
14. For details of this campaign, and the strikes which produced it, see Martin Halpern, "Arkansas and the Defeat of Labor Law Reform in 1978 and 1994," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 57 (1998), 99-133; "Stop Scabs, Union Leaders Demand in Washington," The Paperworker, April 1989, 12-13; "IUD Legislative Conference: Enact the Congressional Prohibition on Striker Replacements," The Paperworker, April 1991, 10-11; "Scab Ban Legislation High on the Agenda," The Paperworker, April 1994, 11.
15. For details of this campaign, and the strikes which produced it, see Martin Halpern, "Arkansas and the Defeat of Labor Law Reform in 1978 and 1994," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 57 (1998), 99-133; "Stop Scabs, Union Leaders Demand in Washington," The Paperworker, April 1989, 12-13; "IUD Legislative Conference: Enact the Congressional Prohibition on Striker Replacements," The Paperworker, April 1991, 10-11; "Scab Ban Legislation High on the Agenda," The Paperworker, April 1994, 11.
16. For details of this campaign, and the strikes which produced it, see Martin Halpern, "Arkansas and the Defeat of Labor Law Reform in 1978 and 1994," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 57 (1998), 99-133; "Stop Scabs, Union Leaders Demand in Washington," The Paperworker, April 1989, 12-13; "IUD Legislative Conference: Enact the Congressional Prohibition on Striker Replacements," The Paperworker, April 1991, 10-11; "Scab Ban Legislation High on the Agenda," The Paperworker, April 1994, 11.
17. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Labor and Human Resources, Prohibiting Discrimination against Economic Strikers, Hearings, 102 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, D.C.: 1991), 1; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on HR 5, The Striker Replacement Bill, Hearings, 102 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1991), 2.
18. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Labor and Human Resources, Prohibiting Discrimination against Economic Strikers, Hearings, 102 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, D.C.: 1991), 1; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on HR 5, The Striker Replacement Bill, Hearings, 102 Cong., 1 Sess. (Washington, DC: 1991), 2.
19. Scholars have written a great deal about the reasons for the decline of organized labor in the 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On? Trying to Be for Labor When it's Flat on its Back (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991); David Brody, "Labor's Crisis in Historical Perspective," in George Strauss, Daniel G. Gallagher and Jack Fiorito, eds., The State of the Unions (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1991), 277-311; Taylor E. Dark, "Debating Decline: The 1995 Race for the AFL-CIO Presidency," Labor History, 40 (1999), 323-343. Cement workers have not been totally neglected by historians. For a fine account of the labor and social history of the cement industry community of Ilasco, Missouri, see Gregg Andrews, City of Dust: A Cement Company in the Land of Tom Sawyer (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996). A good overview of labor relations in the cement industry is provided by Herbert R. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony to Union Disintegration: Collective Bargaining in Cement and Related Industries," Journal of Labor Research, 10 (1989), 337-376.
20. Scholars have written a great deal about the reasons for the decline of organized labor in the 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On? Trying to Be for Labor When it's Flat on its Back (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991); David Brody, "Labor's Crisis in Historical Perspective," in George Strauss, Daniel G. Gallagher and Jack Fiorito, eds., The State of the Unions (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1991), 277-311; Taylor E. Dark, "Debating Decline: The 1995 Race for the AFL-CIO Presidency," Labor History, 40 (1999), 323-343. Cement workers have not been totally neglected by historians. For a fine account of the labor and social history of the cement industry community of Ilasco, Missouri, see Gregg Andrews, City of Dust: A Cement Company in the Land of Tom Sawyer (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996). A good overview of labor relations in the cement industry is provided by Herbert R. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony to Union Disintegration: Collective Bargaining in Cement and Related Industries," Journal of Labor Research, 10 (1989), 337-376.
21. Scholars have written a great deal about the reasons for the decline of organized labor in the 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On? Trying to Be for Labor When it's Flat on its Back (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991); David Brody, "Labor's Crisis in Historical Perspective," in George Strauss, Daniel G. Gallagher and Jack Fiorito, eds., The State of the Unions (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1991), 277-311; Taylor E. Dark, "Debating Decline: The 1995 Race for the AFL-CIO Presidency," Labor History, 40 (1999), 323-343. Cement workers have not been totally neglected by historians. For a fine account of the labor and social history of the cement industry community of Ilasco, Missouri, see Gregg Andrews, City of Dust: A Cement Company in the Land of Tom Sawyer (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996). A good overview of labor relations in the cement industry is provided by Herbert R. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony to Union Disintegration: Collective Bargaining in Cement and Related Industries," Journal of Labor Research, 10 (1989), 337-376.
22. Scholars have written a great deal about the reasons for the decline of organized labor in the 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On? Trying to Be for Labor When it's Flat on its Back (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991); David Brody, "Labor's Crisis in Historical Perspective," in George Strauss, Daniel G. Gallagher and Jack Fiorito, eds., The State of the Unions (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1991), 277-311; Taylor E. Dark, "Debating Decline: The 1995 Race for the AFL-CIO Presidency," Labor History, 40 (1999), 323-343. Cement workers have not been totally neglected by historians. For a fine account of the labor and social history of the cement industry community of Ilasco, Missouri, see Gregg Andrews, City of Dust: A Cement Company in the Land of Tom Sawyer (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996). A good overview of labor relations in the cement industry is provided by Herbert R. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony to Union Disintegration: Collective Bargaining in Cement and Related Industries," Journal of Labor Research, 10 (1989), 337-376.
23. Scholars have written a great deal about the reasons for the decline of organized labor in the 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On? Trying to Be for Labor When it's Flat on its Back (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991); David Brody, "Labor's Crisis in Historical Perspective," in George Strauss, Daniel G. Gallagher and Jack Fiorito, eds., The State of the Unions (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1991), 277-311; Taylor E. Dark, "Debating Decline: The 1995 Race for the AFL-CIO Presidency," Labor History, 40 (1999), 323-343. Cement workers have not been totally neglected by historians. For a fine account of the labor and social history of the cement industry community of Ilasco, Missouri, see Gregg Andrews, City of Dust: A Cement Company in the Land of Tom Sawyer (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996). A good overview of labor relations in the cement industry is provided by Herbert R. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony to Union Disintegration: Collective Bargaining in Cement and Related Industries," Journal of Labor Research, 10 (1989), 337-376.
24. Scholars have written a great deal about the reasons for the decline of organized labor in the 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On? Trying to Be for Labor When it's Flat on its Back (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991); David Brody, "Labor's Crisis in Historical Perspective," in George Strauss, Daniel G. Gallagher and Jack Fiorito, eds., The State of the Unions (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1991), 277-311; Taylor E. Dark, "Debating Decline: The 1995 Race for the AFL-CIO Presidency," Labor History, 40 (1999), 323-343. Cement workers have not been totally neglected by historians. For a fine account of the labor and social history of the cement industry community of Ilasco, Missouri, see Gregg Andrews, City of Dust: A Cement Company in the Land of Tom Sawyer (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996). A good overview of labor relations in the cement industry is provided by Herbert R. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony to Union Disintegration: Collective Bargaining in Cement and Related Industries," Journal of Labor Research, 10 (1989), 337-376.
25. Scholars have written a great deal about the reasons for the decline of organized labor in the 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On? Trying to Be for Labor When it's Flat on its Back (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991); David Brody, "Labor's Crisis in Historical Perspective," in George Strauss, Daniel G. Gallagher and Jack Fiorito, eds., The State of the Unions (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1991), 277-311; Taylor E. Dark, "Debating Decline: The 1995 Race for the AFL-CIO Presidency," Labor History, 40 (1999), 323-343. Cement workers have not been totally neglected by historians. For a fine account of the labor and social history of the cement industry community of Ilasco, Missouri, see Gregg Andrews, City of Dust: A Cement Company in the Land of Tom Sawyer (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996). A good overview of labor relations in the cement industry is provided by Herbert R. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony to Union Disintegration: Collective Bargaining in Cement and Related Industries," Journal of Labor Research, 10 (1989), 337-376.
26. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
27. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
28. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
29. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
30. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
31. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
32. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
33. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
34. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
35. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
36. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
37. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
38. The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of a sophisticated body of historical scholarship on Southern workers. For an overview of this scholarship, see Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-century South (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Robert H. Zieger, ed., Southern Labor in Transition, 1940-1995 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1997). Much of this scholarship has concentrated on the textile industry, the South's largest. See, for example, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Gary M. Fink, The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Strike of 1914-1915: Espionage, Labor Conflict, and New South Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1993); David L. Carlton, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (Baton Rouge, LA: University of Louisiana Press, 1982); James A. Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986); Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Daniel J. Clark, Like Night and Day: Unionization in a Southern Mill Town (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bryant Simon, A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands in State and Nation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). The best overview of much of the literature on Southern textile workers is Robert H. Zieger, "Textile Workers and Historians," in Zieger, ed., Organized Labor, 35-59. Other important works on Southern workers include Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Racial and Economic Policies from 1945 to the Present (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
39. Accounts that have spoken of a post-World War II social accord include Samuel Bowles, David M. Gordon and Thomas E. Weisskopf, Beyond the Wasteland: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Jack Metzgar, "Plant Shutdowns and Worker Response: The Case of Johnstown, PA," Socialist Review, 53 (1980), 9-49; A. H. Raskin, "Labor: A Movement in Search of a Mission," in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Unions in Transition (San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 3-38; William Serrin, The Company and the Union (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973); Bruce Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " in Bruce Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 1945-1989: Accommodation and Conflict (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 173-208; Julius Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14: Paperworkers, Politics, and Permanent Replacements (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998) . For an overview of the use of these terms, see Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " 173-174.
40. Accounts that have spoken of a post-World War II social accord include Samuel Bowles, David M. Gordon and Thomas E. Weisskopf, Beyond the Wasteland: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Jack Metzgar, "Plant Shutdowns and Worker Response: The Case of Johnstown, PA," Socialist Review, 53 (1980), 9-49; A. H. Raskin, "Labor: A Movement in Search of a Mission," in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Unions in Transition (San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 3-38; William Serrin, The Company and the Union (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973); Bruce Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " in Bruce Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 1945-1989: Accommodation and Conflict (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 173-208; Julius Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14: Paperworkers, Politics, and Permanent Replacements (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998) . For an overview of the use of these terms, see Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " 173-174.
41. Accounts that have spoken of a post-World War II social accord include Samuel Bowles, David M. Gordon and Thomas E. Weisskopf, Beyond the Wasteland: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Jack Metzgar, "Plant Shutdowns and Worker Response: The Case of Johnstown, PA," Socialist Review, 53 (1980), 9-49; A. H. Raskin, "Labor: A Movement in Search of a Mission," in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Unions in Transition (San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 3-38; William Serrin, The Company and the Union (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973); Bruce Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " in Bruce Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 1945-1989: Accommodation and Conflict (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 173-208; Julius Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14: Paperworkers, Politics, and Permanent Replacements (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998) . For an overview of the use of these terms, see Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " 173-174.
42. Accounts that have spoken of a post-World War II social accord include Samuel Bowles, David M. Gordon and Thomas E. Weisskopf, Beyond the Wasteland: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Jack Metzgar, "Plant Shutdowns and Worker Response: The Case of Johnstown, PA," Socialist Review, 53 (1980), 9-49; A. H. Raskin, "Labor: A Movement in Search of a Mission," in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Unions in Transition (San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 3-38; William Serrin, The Company and the Union (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973); Bruce Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " in Bruce Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 1945-1989: Accommodation and Conflict (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 173-208; Julius Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14: Paperworkers, Politics, and Permanent Replacements (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998) . For an overview of the use of these terms, see Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " 173-174.
43. Accounts that have spoken of a post-World War II social accord include Samuel Bowles, David M. Gordon and Thomas E. Weisskopf, Beyond the Wasteland: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Jack Metzgar, "Plant Shutdowns and Worker Response: The Case of Johnstown, PA," Socialist Review, 53 (1980), 9-49; A. H. Raskin,
44. Accounts that have spoken of a post-World War II social accord include Samuel Bowles, David M. Gordon and Thomas E. Weisskopf, Beyond the Wasteland: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Jack Metzgar, "Plant Shutdowns and Worker Response: The Case of Johnstown, PA," Socialist Review, 53 (1980), 9-49; A. H. Raskin, "Labor: A Movement in Search of a Mission," in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Unions in Transition (San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 3-38; William Serrin, The Company and the Union (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973); Bruce Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " in Bruce Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 1945-1989: Accommodation and Conflict (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 173-208; Julius Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14: Paperworkers, Politics, and Permanent Replacements (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998) . For an overview of the use of these terms, see Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " 173-174.
45. Accounts that have spoken of a post-World War II social accord include Samuel Bowles, David M. Gordon and Thomas E. Weisskopf, Beyond the Wasteland: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Jack Metzgar, "Plant Shutdowns and Worker Response: The Case of Johnstown, PA," Socialist Review, 53 (1980), 9-49; A. H. Raskin, "Labor: A Movement in Search of a Mission," in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Unions in Transition (San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 3-38; William Serrin, The Company and the Union (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973); Bruce Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " in Bruce Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 1945-1989: Accommodation and Conflict (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 173-208; Julius Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14: Paperworkers, Politics, and Permanent Replacements (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998) . For an overview of the use of these terms, see Nissen, "A Post-World War II 'Social Accord?,' " 173-174.
46. Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States, 46-48; Charles Craypo, "The Decline in Union Bargaining Power," in Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 12-27; Northrup, "From Union Hegemony."
47. Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor in the United States, 46-48; Charles Craypo, "The Decline in Union Bargaining Power," in Nissen, ed., U.S. Labor Relations, 12-27; Northrup, "From Union Hegemony."
48. The Calera story invites particular analogies with the lockout of workers at A. E. Staley Company in Decatur, Illinois, in 1994-1995. Staley was owned by the UK sugar manufacturer Tate and Lyle, which locked out the Decatur workers for over 20 months, inspiring a major union campaign in response. For a summary of the Staley lockout and other struggles against multinational corporations, see "The Special Projects Department Report to the UPIU International Executive Board," Feb. 1995, Papers of the United Paperworkers' International Union's Southern Regional Office, held at PACE Regional Office, Mobile, Alabama, hereinafter cited as UPIU - Mobile Papers.
49. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
50. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
51. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
52. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
53. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
54. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
55. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
56. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
57. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
58. The hiring of permanent replacements in the 1980s and 1990s has been written about a great deal from an industrial relations perspective. These works tend to be quantitative in nature and offer little insight into the motives of replacement workers. They do, however, effectively document companies' increased willingness to hire permanent replacements after 1981 and the divisive response that these tactics produce. Important works include: John W. Budd, "Canadian Strike Replacement Legislation and Collective Bargaining: Lessons for the United States," Industrial Relations, April 1996, 245-260; Roger D. Staton, "Hiring of Replacement Workers: An Insidious Weapon against Labor or Management's Last Bargaining Chip," Labor Law Journal, Jan. 1994, 25-32; Cynthia L. Gramm, "Empirical Evidence on Political Arguments Relating to Replacement Worker Legislation," Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1991, 491-495; Harry - footnote continued R. Stang and Julie E. Patterson, "Labor Law Reform: A Management Perspective," Labor Law Journal, September 1994, 565-579; John F. Schnell and Cynthia L. Gramm, "The Empirical Relations between Employers' Striker Replacement Strategies and Strike Duration," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, January 1994, 189-206. James B. Atleson, Values and Assumptions in American Labor Law (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983), 19-34, provides a good overview of the MacKay case and its labor law implications. Several scholars have explored strike breaking, particularly in earlier eras. See, in particular, Clark, Like Night and Day, 168-198; Liston Pope, Millhands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 180-225; Hall et al., Like a Family, 345-349.
59. "Blue Circle Local Makes Strong Recovery from 1994 Dispute at Cement Plant," The PaceSetter, July/August 1999, 1; "Votes from Replacement Workers Key to Re-certifying Union," The Paperworker, May 1998, 4.
60. "Blue Circle Local Makes Strong Recovery from 1994 Dispute at Cement Plant," The PaceSetter, July/August 1999, 1; "Votes from Replacement Workers Key to Re-certifying Union," The Paperworker, May 1998, 4.
61. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 339, 340.
62. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 338.
63. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 338; "Roberta Hourly Employees - Ages and Years of Service," October 11, 1993, untitled folder, Local 50537 Papers.
64. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 338; "Roberta Hourly Employees - Ages and Years of Service," October 11, 1993, untitled folder, Local 50537 Papers.
65. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 342.
66. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 340; Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview).
67. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 340; Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview).
68. "Welcome to Calera, Al.," leaflet published by the Calera Chamber of Commerce, copy in author's possession; Barbara Baker Roberts, Early History of Calera, Alabama (Montevallo, AL: Times Printing Company, 1977), 23-26.
69. 1997 Alabama Manufacturers Register (Evanston, IL: Manufacturers' News, 1997), 210; Alabama Manufacturing Directory, 1997-98 (Montgomery, AL: Alabama Center for Commerce, 1998), 214.
70. 1997 Alabama Manufacturers Register (Evanston, IL: Manufacturers' News, 1997), 210; Alabama Manufacturing Directory, 1997-98 (Montgomery, AL: Alabama Center for Commerce, 1998), 214.
71. "Blue Circle Industries," Mar. 22, 1994, "Local 50537," folder, UPIU Papers (Communications Department), 2-3; Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 341, 360.
72. "Blue Circle Industries," Mar. 22, 1994, "Local 50537," folder, UPIU Papers (Communications Department), 2-3; Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 341, 360.
73. V. W. Thompson to J. C. Andrews, March 22, 1974, "UCLGWU," file, Local 50537 Papers.
74. Gene Honeycutt, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
75. Starr C. Galloway to Richard A. Northrip, April 18, 1975, "UCLGWU," file, Local 50537 Papers; Donald Langham, interview with author on Aug. 4, 1999 in Mobile, Alabama.
76. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 337-376. A brief history of the CLGWU is contained in the Oct. 1978 issue of Voice, the CLGWU's official publication.
77. "The Big Cement Strike," Voice, Oct. 1978, 13. For the successful operation of pattern bargaining in the cement industry, see, for example, "Collective Bargaining Review," Voice, Oct. 1965,1; "March - A Month to be Remembered," Voice, May 1971, 3; "Wages and Benefits Negotiated in Cement 'Substantial,' " Voice, May 1978, 3.
78. "The Big Cement Strike," Voice, Oct. 1978, 13. For the successful operation of pattern bargaining in the cement industry, see, for example, "Collective Bargaining Review," Voice, Oct. 1965,1; "March - A Month to be Remembered," Voice, May 1971, 3; "Wages and Benefits Negotiated in Cement 'Substantial,' " Voice, May 1978, 3.
79. "The Big Cement Strike," Voice, Oct. 1978, 13. For the successful operation of pattern bargaining in the cement industry, see, for example, "Collective Bargaining Review," Voice, Oct. 1965,1; "March - A Month to be Remembered," Voice, May 1971, 3; "Wages and Benefits Negotiated in Cement 'Substantial,' " Voice, May 1978, 3.
80. "The Big Cement Strike," Voice, Oct. 1978, 13. For the successful operation of pattern bargaining in the cement industry, see, for example, "Collective Bargaining Review," Voice, Oct. 1965,1; "March - A Month to be Remembered," Voice, May 1971, 3; "Wages and Benefits Negotiated in Cement 'Substantial,' " Voice, May 1978, 3.
81. Articles in Voice, the official CLGWU publication, frequently celebrated the union's record of winning wages and benefit improvements for its members. See, for example, "Before the Union, the Employers Ruled Like Despots," Voice, May 1977, 3.
82. Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview).
83. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 366-367.
84. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 361-363.
85. Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview).
86. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 360, 368-369.
87. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 370-371; Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview); "UPIU History since 1984," document supplied by PACE, copy in author's possession; Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
88. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 370-371; Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview); "UPIU History since 1984," document supplied by PACE, copy in author's possession; Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
89. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 370-371; Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview); "UPIU History since 1984," document supplied by PACE, copy in author's possession; Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
90. Northrup, "From Union Hegemony," 370-371; Richard Northrip, interview with author on Aug. 5, 1999 (phone interview); "UPIU History since 1984," document supplied by PACE, copy in author's possession; Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
91. "Martin Marietta Joint Conference," Jan. 24, 1975, "UCLGWU," file, Local 50537 Papers.
92. Luther Carter, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999, in Calera, Alabama; Tyrone Perkins, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Jesse Burns, interview with author on July 16, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Gene Honeycutt, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
93. In June 1979, for example, workers Bobby E. Hopper and J. C. Littleton filed a typical grievance: "We request that transfer premium be paid when work is performed out of one's classification. Specifically when labor tools are being used by employees that are not labors." Grievance 122-79, June 18, 1979, "1979-1980 Grievance," folder, Local 50537 Papers. For examples of other, similar grievances, see Grievance 112-79 and Grievance 123-79, both in "1979-1980 Grievance," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
94. Grievance 82-78, Aug. 8, 1978, "76-98-78," folder, Local 50537 Papers. For the importance of transfer pay as a whole, see C. A. Miller to John Patterson, Oct. 27, 1978, "76-98-78," folder, Local 50537 Papers; C. A. Miller to John Patterson, Dec. 21, 1977, "Union and Management Agreements," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
95. Grievance 173-76, Mar. 5, 1976, "Grievance 169-76 thru. 191-276," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
96. Michael Tomberlin, "Workers Walk off Their Jobs at Calera," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 10, 1994, A1, A3; E. F. Muehlberger to All Union Employees, July 9, 1984, "Local Union Number 537 and Blue Circle Inc., Roberta, Alabama, 1984 Contract Negotiations," folder, Local 50537 Papers. Quotation from D. E. McNees to Fellow Union Members, Aug. 10, 1988, "IWNA 1988-89," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
97. Michael Tomberlin, "Workers Walk off Their Jobs at Calera," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 10, 1994, A1, A3; E. F. Muehlberger to All Union Employees, July 9, 1984, "Local Union Number 537 and Blue Circle Inc., Roberta, Alabama, 1984 Contract Negotiations," folder, Local 50537 Papers. Quotation from D. E. McNees to Fellow Union Members, Aug. 10, 1988, "IWNA 1988-89," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
98. Luther Carter, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
99. John F. Hertzog to DougMcNees, Mar. 21,1988, "1988-89 Grievances," folder, Local 50537 Papers; Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
100. Robert Wade, interview with author on July 22,1999 in Calera, Alabama. As Gene Honeycutt, another worker who remembered the Martin Marietta days, recalled, "Instead of trying to work with the men, work with the union, reach a happy medium, they didn't try at all, they just chose to not even honor the union, not have any respect for the union at all." Gene Honeycutt, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
101. John Summerbell to Victor E. Thorpe, Sept. 12, 1994, "Local 50502," folder, UPIU Papers (Communications Department).
102. Jesse Burns, interview with author on July 16, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. Local union officer Keilan Gore confirmed that cancelling retirees' insurance was the main cause of the strike when he wrote: "The Union and company are apart on a number of items, the most important of which is retiree insurance." Keilan Gore to Wayne E. Glenn, May 16, 1994, "Negotiation Material," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
103. John Summerbell to Jennifer Pate, Aug. 29, 1994, "Unconditional Return," folder, Local 50537 Papers; Douglas E. McNees to Mark Brooks, Sept. 20, 1994, "Blue Circle-General," folder, UPIU Papers (Special Projects Department); Keilan Gore and Elmer Smith to Wayne E. Glenn, May 16, 1994, "Negotiation Material," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
104. Tyrone Perkins, for example, typically asserted that: "They planned this whole thing. They wanted us to go out on strike. We were forced out." Tyrone Perkins, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
105. Keilan Gore to Wayne E. Glenn, May 16, 1994, "Negotiation Material," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
106. Donald Langham, interview with author on Aug. 4, 1999 in Mobile, Alabama.
107. "Talks End Blue Circle Strike," Shelby County Reporter, July 20, 1988, A5.
108. Robert Wade, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Luther Carter; interview with author on July 15, 1999, in Calera, Alabama.
109. Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
110. Letter to Blue Circle Cement employees, July 29, 1994, "Negotiation Material," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
111. Thomas P. Marnell to fellow employees, Aug. 3, 1994, "Unconditional Return," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
112. John Summerbell to Jennifer Pate, Aug. 29, 1994, "Unconditional Return," folder, Local 50537 Papers; John Summerbell to Victor E. Thorpe, Sept. 12, 1994, and G. P. B. Mutter to Allan Black, Sept. 21, 1994, both in "Local 50502," folder, UPIU Papers (Communications Department).
113. A detailed breakdown of replacement workers' names, race, and date of hire was supplied to the union during the strike. See "Blue Circle Inc. Hourly Employee Alpha Listing," May 9, 1995, "Labor Board Material 1995," folder, Local 50537 Papers. Details of the company's hiring of replacements was also provided in John Summerbell to Jennifer Pate, Aug. 29, 1994, "Unconditional Return," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
114. As The Paperworker noted after the strike, "The 1994 strike was notable even in the sad annals of corporate use of 'permanent replacements' for how quickly the threat was issued." "Votes from Replacement Workers Key to Re-certifying Union," The Paperworker, May 1998, 4.
115. Michael Tomberlin, "Workers Walk off Their Jobs at Calera," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 10, 1994, A1, A3, quotation on both pages.
116. Thomas P. Marnell to Jimmy Baugus, Aug. 5, 1994, "Blue Circle - General," folder, UPIU Papers (Special Projects Department).
117. Orbins Campbell to Bobby Watts, Aug. 13, 1994, "Resignations from Local and Court Material/Labor Board," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
118. "Plant Strike Stretches into Second Month," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 31, 1994, A1, A5.
119. Roderick Harry, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
120. Andy Lackey, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
121. For coverage of the National Standard strike, see "Union Members Question TreatmentShelby County Reporter, June 9, 1993, A4; "Employee Speaks," Shelby County Reporter, July 7, 1994, A4; "Officials Begin Plant Closure Procedures," Shelby County Reporter, April 13, 1994, A1.
122. For coverage of the National Standard strike, see "Union Members Question TreatmentShelby County Reporter, June 9, 1993, A4; "Employee Speaks," Shelby County Reporter, July 7, 1994, A4; "Officials Begin Plant Closure Procedures," Shelby County Reporter, April 13, 1994, A1.
123. For coverage of the National Standard strike, see "Union Members Question TreatmentShelby County Reporter, June 9, 1993, A4; "Employee Speaks," Shelby County Reporter, July 7, 1994, A4; "Officials Begin Plant Closure Procedures," Shelby County Reporter, April 13, 1994, A1.
124. J. V. "Butch" Porter, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Ŕésumé of Butch Porter, Mar. 19, 1998, copy in author's possession.
125. Johnny Williams, interview with author on July 17, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
126. Roderick Harry, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
127. J. V. "Butch" Porter, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
128. Roderick Harry, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. Johnny Williams was similarly candid about the company's lack of selection checks during the hiring process: "I did no physical, no eye exam, no drugs, no nothing, went to work Monday morning ... They weren't doing no background check, no nothing on you." Johnny Williams, interview with author on July 17, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
129. Johnny Williams, interview with author on July 17, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
130. Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. Michael Tomberlin, "Plant Strike Stretches into Second Month," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 31, 1994, A1, A5. The violence that occurred in the last week of the strike is clearly detailed in a video of the strike that Local 50537 members compiled. A copy of this video is in the author's possession.
131. Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. Michael Tomberlin, "Plant Strike Stretches into Second Month," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 31, 1994, A1, A5. The violence that occurred in the last week of the strike is clearly detailed in a video of the strike that Local 50537 members compiled. A copy of this video is in the author's possession.
132. Complaint, Aug. 14, 1994, Blue Circle Cement v. United Paperuiorkers' International Union, quotation on 4; Temporary Restraining Order, Aug. 17, 1994, Blue Circle Cement v. United Paperuiorkers' International Union, 3-4, case files held at Shelby County Circuit Court in Columbiana, Alabama (case no: CV 94-499); Michael Tomberlin, "Plant Strike Stretches into Second Month," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 31, 1994, A1.
133. Complaint, Aug. 14, 1994, Blue Circle Cement v. United Paperuiorkers' International Union, quotation on 4; Temporary Restraining Order, Aug. 17, 1994, Blue Circle Cement v. United Paperuiorkers' International Union, 3-4, case files held at Shelby County Circuit Court in Columbiana, Alabama (case no: CV 94-499); Michael Tomberlin, "Plant Strike Stretches into Second Month," Shelby County Reporter, Aug. 31, 1994, A1.
134. Roderick Harry, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
135. J. V. "Butch" Porter, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
136. Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
137. "Calera Union Members Return to Work but Questions over Contract Remain," Shelby County Reporter, Sept. 7, 1994, A7.
138. In July 1996, for example, Luther Carter complained that replacement workers were being allowed more vacations than union workers: "This company elected to bend its Rules for replacement workers and treat Union employees different." Grievance 40-96, July 29, 1996, Bobby Watts files, Local 50537 Papers. For other examples of similar grievances, see "Third Step Meeting," Mar. 16, 1995, "Third Step Letters, 1995," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
139. In July 1996, for example, Luther Carter complained that replacement workers were being allowed more vacations than union workers: "This company elected to bend its Rules for replacement workers and treat Union employees different." Grievance 40-96, July 29, 1996, Bobby Watts files, Local 50537 Papers. For other examples of similar grievances, see "Third Step Meeting," Mar. 16, 1995, "Third Step Letters, 1995," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
140. Grievance 26-96, May 28, 1996, Bobby Watts files, Local 50537 Papers.
141. "Roberta Hourly Employees - Ages and Years of Service," Oct. 11, 1993, untitled folder, Local 50537 Papers.
142. Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
143. Jesse Burns, interview with author on July 16, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
144. Tyrone Perkins, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
145. Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
146. Wayne E. Glenn to Donald L. Langham, Sept. 6, 1994, "Letters from International Pertaining to Strike," Local 50537 Papers.
147. Keith Romig, interview with author on Aug. 13, 1999 in Nashville, Tennessee.
148. For the setting up of the Special Projects Department, see Proceedings of the Fifth Constitutional Convention of the United Paperworkers' International Union, Sept. 28-Oct. 2, 1992, 88-89.
149. Victor E. Thorpe, ICEF general secretary, for example, wrote Blue Circle president John Summerbell in Aug. 1994 to protest against Blue Circle's "strike-breaking" in the U.S. Victor E. Thorpe to John Summerbell, Aug. 26, 1994, "Blue Circle - General," folder, UPIU Papers (Special Projects Department).
150. In a typical letter, for example, Errol K. McLeod, president of Trinidad's Oilfields Workers' Trade Union, wrote Blue Circle's John Summerbell: "We strongly condemn the attitude and behaviour of your Company Blue Circle in its refusal to meet and bargain with the Union and also to reinstate the workers whom you unceremoniously dismissed. We call on your management to reinstate the workers and meet with the Union in negotiations as to bring about a satisfactory settlement of the issues involved." Errol K. McLeod to John Summerbell, Oct. 10, 1994. For examples of other letters, see Adnan Ozcan and Bayram Yilirm to Keith Orrell-Jones, Sept. 12, 1994, R. E. Makuwaza to John Summerbell, Sept. 9, 1994; Len McCluskey to A. Johnson, Sept. 21, 1994, all in "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
151. Kenneth L. Coss to John Summerbell, Oct. 12, 1994, "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
152. John Wayne Garrett to Don Scott, Sept. 19, 1994, "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
153. "You Can't Build Brotherhood on Injustice," Aug. 1994, UPIU flier in "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
154. "Wrong Blue Circle," flier dated 1994 in "Local 50502," folder. UPIU Papers (Communications Department).
155. Vic Thorpe to Juan Antonio Samaranch, Sept. 7, 1994, "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
156. Allan Black, a national officer of a United Kingdom union (the GMB), for example, wrote IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch to protest the fact that the Olympic village was being constructed by cement supplied by a company that had "dismissed members of the United Paperworkers" International Union for taking strike action." Allan Black to Juan Antonio Samaranch, Oct. 4, 1994, "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers. For other letters from unions to the Olympic movement protesting the use of Blue Circle cement, see, for example, Adnan Ozcan and Bayram Yilirm to Juan Antonio Samaranch, Sept. 12, 1994, Kenneth L. Coss to Juan Antonio Samaranch, Oct. 12, 1994, "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
157. Shirley C. Franklin to Allan Black, Oct. 19, 1994, "Letters from International Union Pertaining to Strike," folder, Local 50537 Papers; William J. Moss to Robert E. Wages, Oct. 4, 1994, "Blue Circle Cement, Atlanta, Georgia," folder, UPIU - Mobile Papers.
158. The Special Projects Department was very disappointed with this response, feeling that the ACOG could have exerted pressure on the Georgia Board of Regents if it had wanted to. As Mark Brooks noted: "This is a rather lame excuse for ACOG's inaction, since ACOG obviously has some influence with the Georgia Board of Regents to encourage the Board to stop using scab-made cement in the construction of the Olympic village." Mark Brooks to Jyrki Raina et al., Oct. 12, 1994, "Blue Circle Cement, Atlanta, Georgia," folder, UPIU - Mobile Papers.
159. Keith Romig, interview with author on Aug. 13, 1999 in Nashville, Tennessee.
160. Decertification information drawn from "Defense and Information Department, Legal Division, February 1998 Board Report," Feb. 23, 1998, UPIU - Mobile Papers.
161. Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
162. Minutes of meetings of Sept. 25, 1996, Oct. 10, 1996, Oct. 24, 1996, Nov. 7, 1996, Nov. 21, 1996, Dec. 5, 1996, Dec. 19, 1996, Jan. 2, 1997, Jan. 16, 1997, Jan. 30, 1997, Feb. 13, 1997, Mar. 13, 1997, all in Local 50537 Papers.
163. "Roberta Hourly Employees - Ages and Years of Service," Oct. 11, 1993, untitled folder, Local 50537 Papers.
164. The largest strike in the paper industry where permanent replacements were hired was the 1987-1988 dispute at International Paper Company (IP), which resulted in 2200 strikers being replaced and three large UPIU local unions being decertified. In the 1987-1988 IP strike, the main strike location was in Jay, Maine, where over 1000 people were involved. Since the strike, the UPIU has carried on a campaign to regain bargaining rights, but these efforts failed in representation elections held in August 1995 and again in May 1998. Hatreds from the strike had proved impossible to overcome. For details of the efforts to reorganize in Jay, see Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14, 200; Alan Morse, "IP Workers Vote No," Lewiston Sun Journal, Aug. 19, 1995; Richard Thomas, interview with author on July 3, 1998 in Satsuma, Alabama.
165. The largest strike in the paper industry where permanent replacements were hired was the 1987-1988 dispute at International Paper Company (IP), which resulted in 2200 strikers being replaced and three large UPIU local unions being decertified. In the 1987-1988 IP strike, the main strike location was in Jay, Maine, where over 1000 people were involved. Since the strike, the UPIU has carried on a campaign to regain bargaining rights, but these efforts failed in representation elections held in August 1995 and again in May 1998. Hatreds from the strike had proved impossible to overcome. For details of the efforts to reorganize in Jay, see Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14, 200; Alan Morse, "IP Workers Vote No," Lewiston Sun Journal, Aug. 19, 1995; Richard Thomas, interview with author on July 3, 1998 in Satsuma, Alabama.
166. "Locked-out Workers in Mobile Return to Jobs after 19 Months," The Paperworker, Nov. 1988, 6. Similarly, in April 1990 UPIU president Wayne Glenn claimed that the use of permanent replacements caused "a lifetime of strife to solid working-class communities." "Scab Ban Central Theme at Region Ten Confab," The Paperworker, April 1990, 13.
167. "Locked-out Workers in Mobile Return to Jobs after 19 Months," The Paperworker, Nov. 1988, 6. Similarly, in April 1990 UPIU president Wayne Glenn claimed that the use of permanent replacements caused "a lifetime of strife to solid working-class communities." "Scab Ban Central Theme at Region Ten Confab," The Paperworker, April 1990, 13.
168. Donald Langham, interview with author on Aug. 4, 1999 in Mobile, Alabama. Langham stressed that Calera had always been a stronger union location than Atlanta. He also explained that it was much easier for replaced strikers to find other jobs in Atlanta than it was in Calera. This meant that in Atlanta the union lacked a base from which to reorganize.
169. "Votes from Replacement Workers Key to Re-certifying Union," The Paperworker, May 1998, 4.
170. Roderick Harry, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
171. Andy Lackey, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
172. Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
173. Johnny Williams, interview with author on July 17, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
174. For details of union complaints that replacement workers were not disciplined equally, see "Third Step Meeting," Mar. 16, 1995, "Third Step Letters, 1995," folder, Local 50537 Papers. Bobby Watts also felt that after the strike: "The replacement workers, they would get anything they wanted. The company would buy them anything they wanted, try to just keep them pacified, and the union people, they was trying to discourage us so that we would quit." Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
175. Butch Porter, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
176. "Votes from Replacement Workers Key to Re-certifying Union," The Paperworker, May 1998, 4.
177. Watts, quoted in "Blue Circle Local Makes Strong Recovery from 1994 Dispute at Cement Plant," The PaceSetter, July/Aug. 1999, 1.
178. Robert Wade, for example, remembered that: "It's still difficult to this day but you've got to try to do right, and some of them has come up and they've told us why they did it. It doesn't make me like it but at least they had the courage to come up and tell us and tell us they're sorry." Robert Wade, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. Jesse Burns, who himself admitted that it had been very difficult to accept the replacements, cited personal contact as crucial: "If you'd of told me five years ago that I would be recruiting replacements to make union people out of them I'd of said, 'There's no way. There ain't no way I'd do that' ... I didn't like it but I knew in order for the union to survive, we had to do it ... I've become real good friends with some of them, a lot of them, because they see our point of view and some of them are becoming real good union people. A lot of them didn't know anything about a union. Once we got them and told them how a union is supposed to work, they've helped us a whole lot, a whole lot, and some of them told me the stories that they had, the reason that they crossed over, and some of them were pretty sad. I wouldn't want to be in that position. Wouldn't make me want to cross over a picket-line but, like I said, in due time all wounds do heal and you move on." Jesse Burns, interview with author on July 16, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
179. Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
180. Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
181. Emory Barnette, interview with author on Aug. 4, 1999 in Thomasville, Alabama. Barnette's efforts to convince the Calera workers of the necessity of accepting replacements are also detailed in the local union minutes. See, for example, minutes of Mar. 19, 1998 local union meeting, Local 50537 Papers.
182. Emory Barnette to Donald L. Langham, Mar. 8, 1999, Emory Barnette to Donald L. Langham, n.d., correspondence in author's possession.
183. Robert Wade, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
184. Gene Honeycutt, interview with author on Aug. 3, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
185. Jesse Burns, interview with author on July 16, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. Robert Wade similarly recalled that: "Oh yes man we came up here when we found out, we were whooping and hollering and jumping up and down in this building." Robert Wade, interview with author on July 22, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
186. Johnny Williams, interview with author on July 17, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
187. Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
188. As Barnette recalled, "We stepped on some toes, Tim, I don't mind telling you, when we put Roderick on the negotiating committee. We fought that. The replacement workers, after we had organized them, were still very uncomfortable with us, and we fought and we felt that it would be a real good idea if we could take one of them and put one of them on the committee, not necessarily for the input, no other reason than they could be there to see that our aim is not to undercut them or to cost them their job. That was their one main concern, that we would negotiate them out the gate and our people back, and I think they were able to see that that was not our intent." Emory Barnette, interview with author on Aug. 4, 1999 in Thomasville, Alabama.
189. Emory Barnette, interview with author on Aug. 4, 1999 in Thomasville, Alabama.
190. Emory Barnette to Donald L. Langham, July 15, 1998, correspondence given to author by Emory Barnette (copy in author's possession).
191. Emory Barnette to Donald L. Langham, Mar. 8, 1999 and "Agreement between Blue Circle, Inc., Roberta Plant and PACE International Union Local No. 3-0537," correspondence given to author by Emory Barnette (in author's possession); Bobby Watts, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama; Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
192. Bobby Watts, phone conversation with author, Mar. 25, 2000.
193. Statistic cited by a news report on the strike, Calera Strike Video (copy in author's possession).
194. Blue Circle's top managers themselves claimed during the strike that conflict over health care costs was a problem that "shouts at us from every day's newspaper." John Summerbell to Jennifer Pate, Aug. 29, 1994, "Unconditional Return," folder, Local 50537 Papers.
195. "Health Security: It's about Our Jobs," The Paperworker, June 1994, 16; "The President's Report," The Paperworker, May 1994, 2; "Region Ten Confab Backs Push for National Health Care," The Paperworker, April 1994, 10. For other strikes caused by health care issues, see "Health Care Cuts Spur Brief James River Walkout," The Paperworker, Aug. 1992, 3; "James River Strike Ends with National Health Care Talk," The Paperworker, Sept. 1992, 5.
196. "Health Security: It's about Our Jobs," The Paperworker, June 1994, 16; "The President's Report," The Paperworker, May 1994, 2; "Region Ten Confab Backs Push for National Health Care," The Paperworker, April 1994, 10. For other strikes caused by health care issues, see "Health Care Cuts Spur Brief James River Walkout," The Paperworker, Aug. 1992, 3; "James River Strike Ends with National Health Care Talk," The Paperworker, Sept. 1992, 5.
197. "Health Security: It's about Our Jobs," The Paperworker, June 1994, 16; "The President's Report," The Paperworker, May 1994, 2; "Region Ten Confab Backs Push for National Health Care," The Paperworker, April 1994, 10. For other strikes caused by health care issues, see "Health Care Cuts Spur Brief James River Walkout," The Paperworker, Aug. 1992, 3; "James River Strike Ends with National Health Care Talk," The Paperworker, Sept. 1992, 5.
198. "Health Security: It's about Our Jobs," The Paperworker, June 1994, 16; "The President's Report," The Paperworker, May 1994, 2; "Region Ten Confab Backs Push for National Health Care," The Paperworker, April 1994, 10. For other strikes caused by health care issues, see "Health Care Cuts Spur Brief James River Walkout," The Paperworker, Aug. 1992, 3; "James River Strike Ends with National Health Care Talk," The Paperworker, Sept. 1992, 5.
199. "Health Security: It's about Our Jobs," The Paperworker, June 1994, 16; "The President's Report," The Paperworker, May 1994, 2; "Region Ten Confab Backs Push for National Health Care," The Paperworker, April 1994, 10. For other strikes caused by health care issues, see "Health Care Cuts Spur Brief James River Walkout," The Paperworker, Aug. 1992, 3; "James River Strike Ends with National Health Care Talk," The Paperworker, Sept. 1992, 5.
200. James Albright to all locals in Jefferson and Shelby County, Aug. 9, 1994, "Blue Circle Cement, Atlanta, Georgia," folder, UPIU - Mobile Papers.
201. Allan Black to Donald Langham, April 24, 1998, "Blue Circle Cement Case Number 10-RM-836," folder, UPIU - Mobile Papers.
202. Donald Langham, interview with author on Aug. 4, 1999 in Mobile, Alabama. UPIU representative Doug McNees expressed similar views to Langham, asserting that: "They're doing things to Americans they can't even do at home. Laws don't allow them to ... So they come over here and take advantage of everything they can." Doug McNees, interview with author on Aug. 2, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
203. Allan Black to Donald Langham, April 24, 1998, "Blue Circle Cement Case Number 10-RM-836," folder, UPIU - Mobile Papers.
204. Luther Carter, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama.
205. Philip Mattera to Corporate Campaign, Nov. 14, 1988, "Replacement Workers," file, UPIU Papers; "Fact Sheet on HR 1383, a Bill to Limit the Use of Permanent Replacements," n.d., "Striker Replacement," folder, UPIU Papers.
206. Luther Carter, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. For other studies that have reached similar conclusions, see Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14, esp. 216-220; Timothy J. Minchin, "Torn Apart: Permanent Replacements and the Crossett Strike of 1985," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 59 (2000), 30-58; Adrienne Eaton and Jill Kriesky, "Collective Bargaining in the Paper Industry: Developments since 1979," in Paula Voos, ed., Contemporary Collective Bargaining in the Private Sector (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1994), 51-52.
207. Luther Carter, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. For other studies that have reached similar conclusions, see Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14, esp. 216-220; Timothy J. Minchin, "Torn Apart: Permanent Replacements and the Crossett Strike of 1985," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 59 (2000), 30-58; Adrienne Eaton and Jill Kriesky, "Collective Bargaining in the Paper Industry: Developments since 1979," in Paula Voos, ed., Contemporary Collective Bargaining in the Private Sector (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1994), 51-52.
208. Luther Carter, interview with author on July 15, 1999 in Calera, Alabama. For other studies that have reached similar conclusions, see Getman, The Betrayal of Local 14, esp. 216-220; Timothy J. Minchin, "Torn Apart: Permanent Replacements and the Crossett Strike of 1985," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 59 (2000), 30-58; Adrienne Eaton and Jill Kriesky, "Collective Bargaining in the Paper Industry: Developments since 1979," in Paula Voos, ed., Contemporary Collective Bargaining in the Private Sector (Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1994), 51-52.