Adjusting to peace: Military values in a cross-national comparison

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 567-595

  Franke, Volker ^a   Heinecken, Lindy ^b  

^a WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035596856     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0102700404     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. For further detail see Guiseppe Caforio ed., The European Cadet: Professional Socialisation in Military Academies: A Crossnational Study (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1998); Joseph Soeters, "Value Orientations in Military Academies: A Thirteen Country Study," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 7-33; Volker Franke, "Warriors for Peace: The Next Generation of U.S. Military Leaders," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 33-59; Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy," Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; and Cathy Dowries, Special Trust and Confidence: The Making of an Officer (London: Antony Row Ltd., 1991).
2. For further detail see Guiseppe Caforio ed., The European Cadet: Professional Socialisation in Military Academies: A Crossnational Study (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1998); Joseph Soeters, "Value Orientations in Military Academies: A Thirteen Country Study," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 7-33; Volker Franke, "Warriors for Peace: The Next Generation of U.S. Military Leaders," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 33-59; Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy," Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; and Cathy Dowries, Special Trust and Confidence: The Making of an Officer (London: Antony Row Ltd., 1991).
3. For further detail see Guiseppe Caforio ed., The European Cadet: Professional Socialisation in Military Academies: A Crossnational Study (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1998); Joseph Soeters, "Value Orientations in Military Academies: A Thirteen Country Study," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 7-33; Volker Franke, "Warriors for Peace: The Next Generation of U.S. Military Leaders," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 33-59; Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy," Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; and Cathy Dowries, Special Trust and Confidence: The Making of an Officer (London: Antony Row Ltd., 1991).
4. For further detail see Guiseppe Caforio ed., The European Cadet: Professional Socialisation in Military Academies: A Crossnational Study (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1998); Joseph Soeters, "Value Orientations in Military Academies: A Thirteen Country Study," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 7-33; Volker Franke, "Warriors for Peace: The Next Generation of U.S. Military Leaders," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 33-59; Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy," Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; and Cathy Dowries, Special Trust and Confidence: The Making of an Officer (London: Antony Row Ltd., 1991).
5. For further detail see Guiseppe Caforio ed., The European Cadet: Professional Socialisation in Military Academies: A Crossnational Study (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1998); Joseph Soeters, "Value Orientations in Military Academies: A Thirteen Country Study," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 7-33; Volker Franke, "Warriors for Peace: The Next Generation of U.S. Military Leaders," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Fall 1997): 33-59; Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy," Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; and Cathy Dowries, Special Trust and Confidence: The Making of an Officer (London: Antony Row Ltd., 1991).
6. See Volker Franke, "Resolving Identity Tensions: The Case of the Peacekeeper," The Journal of Conflict Studies 19 (Fall 1999): 124-143; David R. Segal and Ronald B. Tiggle, "Attitudes of Citizen-Soldiers toward Military Missions in the Post-Cold War World," Armed Forces & Society 23 (Summer 1997): 373-390; Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997); Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope," Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and Barbara F. Meeker and David R. Segal, "Soldiers' Perceptions of Conflict Likelihood: The Effects of Doctrine and Experience," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 15 (Spring 1987): 105-115.
7. See Volker Franke, "Resolving Identity Tensions: The Case of the Peacekeeper," The Journal of Conflict Studies 19 (Fall 1999): 124-143; David R. Segal and Ronald B. Tiggle, "Attitudes of Citizen-Soldiers toward Military Missions in the Post-Cold War World," Armed Forces & Society 23 (Summer 1997): 373-390; Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997); Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope," Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and Barbara F. Meeker and David R. Segal, "Soldiers' Perceptions of Conflict Likelihood: The Effects of Doctrine and Experience," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 15 (Spring 1987): 105-115.
8. See Volker Franke, "Resolving Identity Tensions: The Case of the Peacekeeper," The Journal of Conflict Studies 19 (Fall 1999): 124-143; David R. Segal and Ronald B. Tiggle, "Attitudes of Citizen-Soldiers toward Military Missions in the Post-Cold War World," Armed Forces & Society 23 (Summer 1997): 373-390; Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997); Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope," Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and Barbara F. Meeker and David R. Segal, "Soldiers' Perceptions of Conflict Likelihood: The Effects of Doctrine and Experience," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 15 (Spring 1987): 105-115.
9. See Volker Franke, "Resolving Identity Tensions: The Case of the Peacekeeper," The Journal of Conflict Studies 19 (Fall 1999): 124-143; David R. Segal and Ronald B. Tiggle, "Attitudes of Citizen-Soldiers toward Military Missions in the Post-Cold War World," Armed Forces & Society 23 (Summer 1997): 373-390; Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997); Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope," Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and Barbara F. Meeker and David R. Segal, "Soldiers' Perceptions of Conflict Likelihood: The Effects of Doctrine and Experience," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 15 (Spring 1987): 105-115.
10. See Volker Franke, "Resolving Identity Tensions: The Case of the Peacekeeper," The Journal of Conflict Studies 19 (Fall 1999): 124-143; David R. Segal and Ronald B. Tiggle, "Attitudes of Citizen-Soldiers toward Military Missions in the Post-Cold War World," Armed Forces & Society 23 (Summer 1997): 373-390; Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997); Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope," Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and Barbara F. Meeker and David R. Segal, "Soldiers' Perceptions of Conflict Likelihood: The Effects of Doctrine and Experience," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 15 (Spring 1987): 105-115.
11. Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999).
12. United States Military Academy, Office of the Dean, "Academic Program AY 1997-1998: Field Tables and Course Descriptions." (West Point, NY, July 1997), 3.
13. United States Military Academy, Office of the Dean, "Academic Program AY 1994-1995: Field Tables and Course Descriptions" (West Point, NY, March 1994), 7.
14. See Franke, Preparing for Peace; Franke, "Warriors for Peace."
15. John P. Hammill, David R. Segal, and Mady Wechsler-Segal, "Self-Selection and Parental Socioeconomic Status as Determinants of the Values of West Point Cadets," Armed Forces & Society 22 (Fall 1995): 113.
16. Franke, Preparing for Peace.
17. See Christopher Dandeker, "A Farewell to Arms? The Military and the Nation-State in a Changing World," in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 117-139; and Edwin J. Arnold, Jr, "The Use of Military Power in Pursuit of National Interests." Parameters 23 (Spring 1994): 4-12.
18. See Christopher Dandeker, "A Farewell to Arms? The Military and the Nation-State in a Changing World," in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 117-139; and Edwin J. Arnold, Jr, "The Use of Military Power in Pursuit of National Interests." Parameters 23 (Spring 1994): 4-12.
19. Center for Strategic and International Studies, "Professional Military Education: An Asset for Peace and Progress" (Panel Report, Washington, DC, 1997); Paul F. Diehl, International Peacekeeping. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); and Samuel P. Huntington, "Non-Traditional Roles for the U.S. Military," in Non-Combat Roles for the U.S. Military in the Post-Cold War Era, ed. James R. Graham (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1993), 3-13.
20. Center for Strategic and International Studies, "Professional Military Education: An Asset for Peace and Progress" (Panel Report, Washington, DC, 1997); Paul F. Diehl, International Peacekeeping. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); and Samuel P. Huntington, "Non-Traditional Roles for the U.S. Military," in Non-Combat Roles for the U.S. Military in the Post-Cold War Era, ed. James R. Graham (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1993), 3-13.
21. Center for Strategic and International Studies, "Professional Military Education: An Asset for Peace and Progress" (Panel Report, Washington, DC, 1997); Paul F. Diehl, International Peacekeeping. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); and Samuel P. Huntington, "Non-Traditional Roles for the U.S. Military," in Non-Combat Roles for the U.S. Military in the Post-Cold War Era, ed. James R. Graham (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1993), 3-13.
22. Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization." Armed Forces & Society 4 (Winter 1977): 41-50.
23. Charles Moskos and James Burk, "The Postmodern Military," in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Charles Moskos and Frank Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, 1988); John H. Faris, "The Social Psychology of Military Service and the Influence of Bureaucratic Rationalism," in Moskos and Wood, The Military: More than just a Job? 57-75; and Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation."
24. Charles Moskos and James Burk, "The Postmodern Military," in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Charles Moskos and Frank Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, 1988); John H. Faris, "The Social Psychology of Military Service and the Influence of Bureaucratic Rationalism," in Moskos and Wood, The Military: More than just a Job? 57-75; and Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation."
25. Charles Moskos and James Burk, "The Postmodern Military," in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Charles Moskos and Frank Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, 1988); John H. Faris, "The Social Psychology of Military Service and the Influence of Bureaucratic Rationalism," in Moskos and Wood, The Military: More than just a Job? 57-75; and Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation."
26. Charles Moskos and James Burk, "The Postmodern Military," in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Charles Moskos and Frank Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, 1988); John H. Faris, "The Social Psychology of Military Service and the Influence of Bureaucratic Rationalism," in Moskos and Wood, The Military: More than just a Job? 57-75; and Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation."
27. See Franke, Preparing for Peace; Franke, "Warriors for Peace."
28. Of the 34 academic weeks, five and one-half are allocated to examination and reevaluation. The remaining 28 weeks per annum are devoted to teaching. An average student in the human sciences in the first year attends 30; second year, 24; and third year, 18 classes per week, with each class period lasting 50 minutes.
29. See Franke, Preparing for Peace; Franke, "Warriors for Peace."
30. Apart from the values measured in this context, military socialization also promotes loyalty, duty, selfless service, courage, integrity, respect for human dignity, and a sense of justice. However, since these values are equally important cognitive referents guiding operational decisions during combat and noncombat assignments, their utility in discriminating among cadets is limited. For further detail see Franke, Preparing for Peace.
31. The following scale results were obtained for the two samples: USMA: (1) three-item conservatism scale (CONS: M = 3.00; SD = 0.84; range = 1.00-5.00; Cronbach's alpha = 0.57); (2) six-item patriotism scale (PAT: M = 3.98; SD = 0.59; range = 2.33-5.00; Cronbach's alpha = 0.71); (3) seven-item warriorism scale (WAR: M = 3.71; SD = 0.57; range = 2.43-5.00; Cronbach's alpha = 0.74); (4) three-item global institutionalism scale (GLOB: M = 2.68; SD = 0.83; range = 1.00-5.00; Cronbach's alpha = 0.69); (5) seven-item peacekeeping scale (PK: M = 3.39; SD = 0.59; range = 1.29-4.86; Cronbach's alpha = 0.74); and six-item Machiavellianism scale (MACH: M = 2.48; SD = 0.55; range = 1.17-4.67; Cronbach's alpha = 0.51). SAMA: (1) three-item conservatism scale (CONS: M = 2.76; SD = 0.73; range = 1.00-4.67; Cronbach's alpha = 0.42); (2) six-item patriotism scale (PAT: M = 3.79; SD = 0.61; range = 1.67-4.83; Cronbach's alpha = 0.67); (3) seven-item warriorism scale (WAR: M = 3.35; SD = 0.59; range = 1.86-4.86; Cronbach's alpha = 0.62); (4) three-item global institutionalism scale (GLOB: M = 3.11; SD = 0.79; range = 1.00-5.00; Cronbach's alpha = 0.43); (5) seven-item peacekeeping scale (PK: M = 3.36; SD = 0.55; range = 1.43-4.57; Cronbach's alpha = 0.64); and six-item Machiavellianism scale (MACH: M = 2.70; SD = 0.51; range = 1.50-4.17; Cronbach's alpha = 0.26).
32. Although constructed conceptually as separate scales, the underlying value orientations are not necessarily distinct. Separate factor analyses of the measures for each sample revealed moderate correlations of the two peacekeeping items used in the warriorism scale with the globalism and peacekeeping factors. This illustrates overlap between values and indicates a strong correlation between, in this case, attitudes toward peace operations and global institutions.
33. Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis, Studies in Machiavellianism (New York: Academic Press, 1970).
34. See Daphna Oyserman, "The Lens of Personhood: Viewing the Self and Others in a Multicultural Society," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (1993): 993.
35. For similar findings see Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Phillip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991); Duane F. Alwin, Ronald L. Cohen, and Theodore M. Newcomb, Political Attitudes over the Life Span: The Bennington Women after Fifty Years (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1991); and Theodore M. Newcomb, Personality and Social Change: Attitude Formation in a Student Community (New York: Dryden Press, 1943).
36. For similar findings see Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Phillip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991); Duane F. Alwin, Ronald L. Cohen, and Theodore M. Newcomb, Political Attitudes over the Life Span: The Bennington Women after Fifty Years (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1991); and Theodore M. Newcomb, Personality and Social Change: Attitude Formation in a Student Community (New York: Dryden Press, 1943).
37. For similar findings see Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Phillip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991); Duane F. Alwin, Ronald L. Cohen, and Theodore M. Newcomb, Political Attitudes over the Life Span: The Bennington Women after Fifty Years (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1991); and Theodore M. Newcomb, Personality and Social Change: Attitude Formation in a Student Community (New York: Dryden Press, 1943).
38. David Wellman, Portraits of White Racism, 2nd. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice.
39. David Wellman, Portraits of White Racism, 2nd. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice.
40. David Wellman, Portraits of White Racism, 2nd. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice.
41. John H. Faris, "The Looking-Glass Army: Patriotism in the Post-Cold War Era," Armed Forces & Society 21 (Spring 1995): 411-434.
42. Age comparison by academy class cohort revealed average ages of 19.9 years for USMA and 21.9 years for SAMA first-year students, 21.7 years for third-year USMA cadets and 23.3 years for second-year SAMA students; and 22.5 years (USMA) and 25.1 years (SAMA) for graduating cadets.
43. In addition, respondents' attitudes and value orientations were also compared in terms of military family background, i.e., whether either of their parents had served in the armed forces of their respective countries. The analysis revealed no significant differences.
44. Since not all respondents indicated their gender, sociopolitical views, branch preference, or decision period, the total number of respondents varied slightly for each of these analyses.
45. Verifying these responses, an earlier study found that the attitudes of male and female officers differed significantly when it came to willingness to partake in combined military operations with other African states. See Lindy Heinecken, "Regional Involvement: Attitudes of SANDF Officers towards Future Military Missions," Strategic Review for Southern Africa 21, 1 (1999).
46. Subproject Workgroup on Higher Education, Submission Military Command Council, "Investigation into Junior Officer Development," 16 August 1999. Similar trends were identified by a number of scholars among European military academies, where a lack of emphasis on military ethics and values within military educational institutions too seems to have increased occupational attitudes. See Caforio, The European Cadet.
47. Responding to a separate question on the Future Officer Survey, some two-thirds of USMA cadets (70% of plebes and 65% of seniors) stated that they think they "will be involved in a conventional war within five years of graduation." By contrast, significantly fewer SAMA officers (38% of plebes and 19% of seniors) expected involvement in combat.
48. Asked about the likelihood of involvement in peacekeeping, the vast majority of respondents in both samples (79% of SAMA officers and 96% of USMA cadets) stated they expected "to be involved in some form of a peace operation within five years of graduation."
49. See Heinecken, "Regional Involvement."
50. This commitment is sanctioned in the White Paper on Defence, which states that "as a fully fledged member of the international community. South Africa will fulfil its responsibility to participate in international peace support operations." See Department of Defence, "Defence in a Democracy," South African White Paper on Defence, 1996: 19. Furthermore, such operations must be authorized by the UN Security Council and be sanctioned by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and be undertaken with other SADC states. Besides Lesotho, which was a military intervention and not a peacekeeping operation, the SANDF has not yet been deployed in any peace support operation, although there is currently much debate surrounding the deployment of such a force to the Congo.
51. See, for instance, Richard N. Haass, The Reluctant Sheriff: The United States after the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997); and Robert W. Gregg, About Face?: The United States and the United Nations. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993).
52. See, for instance, Richard N. Haass, The Reluctant Sheriff: The United States after the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997); and Robert W. Gregg, About Face?: The United States and the United Nations. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993).
53. See Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession: Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy." Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; M. E. Kotze and A. Duvenhage, "An Early Career in the Military: A Developmental-Contextual Perspective," Journal of Industrial Psychology 25, 2 (1999): 32; and Lindy Heinecken and M. Khanyile, "Institutional/Occupational Orientations of Students at the SA Military Academy," Report, Centre for Military Studies, South African Military Academy, March 1996.
54. See Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession: Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy." Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; M. E. Kotze and A. Duvenhage, "An Early Career in the Military: A Developmental-Contextual Perspective," Journal of Industrial Psychology 25, 2 (1999): 32; and Lindy Heinecken and M. Khanyile, "Institutional/Occupational Orientations of Students at the SA Military Academy," Report, Centre for Military Studies, South African Military Academy, March 1996.
55. See Lindy Heinecken, "Stress and Change in the Military Profession: Attitudes of Officer Students at the South African Military Academy." Scientiae Militaria 27 (1997): 53-66; M. E. Kotze and A. Duvenhage, "An Early Career in the Military: A Developmental-Contextual Perspective," Journal of Industrial Psychology 25, 2 (1999): 32; and Lindy Heinecken and M. Khanyile, "Institutional/Occupational Orientations of Students at the SA Military Academy," Report, Centre for Military Studies, South African Military Academy, March 1996.
56. Lindy Heinecken, "Is Selfless Service becoming a Misplaced Service Ethic?" Society in Transition 28, 14 (1997).
57. See Thomas E. Ricks, Making the Corps (New York: Scribner, 1997); Ole R. Holsti, "A Widening Gap between the Military and Civilian Society?: Some Evidence, 1976-1996." Working Paper No. 13, Project on U.S. Post-Cold War Civil-Military Relations, John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, October 1997; Andrew J. Bacevich and Richard H. Kohn, "Grand Army of the Republicans." The New Republic 8 (December 1997): 22-25.
58. See Thomas E. Ricks, Making the Corps (New York: Scribner, 1997); Ole R. Holsti, "A Widening Gap between the Military and Civilian Society?: Some Evidence, 1976-1996." Working Paper No. 13, Project on U.S. Post-Cold War Civil-Military Relations, John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, October 1997; Andrew J. Bacevich and Richard H. Kohn, "Grand Army of the Republicans." The New Republic 8 (December 1997): 22-25.
59. See Thomas E. Ricks, Making the Corps (New York: Scribner, 1997); Ole R. Holsti, "A Widening Gap between the Military and Civilian Society?: Some Evidence, 1976-1996." Working Paper No. 13, Project on U.S. Post-Cold War Civil-Military Relations, John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, October 1997; Andrew J. Bacevich and Richard H. Kohn, "Grand Army of the Republicans." The New Republic 8 (December 1997): 22-25.
60. See Faris, "The Looking-Glass Army."
61. See, for instance, Steven Kull and I. M. Destler, "Misreading the American Public on International Engagement." Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1996; Steven Kull, "Americans on Bosnia: A Study of U.S. Public Attitudes" and "Americans on the NATO Operation in Bosnia," both Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, May 1995; Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on U.S. Involvement in Haiti," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, August 1994; and Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on Involvement in Somalia," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1993.
62. See, for instance, Steven Kull and I. M. Destler, "Misreading the American Public on International Engagement." Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1996; Steven Kull, "Americans on Bosnia: A Study of U.S. Public Attitudes" and "Americans on the NATO Operation in Bosnia," both Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, May 1995; Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on U.S. Involvement in Haiti," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, August 1994; and Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on Involvement in Somalia," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1993.
63. See, for instance, Steven Kull and I. M. Destler, "Misreading the American Public on International Engagement." Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1996; Steven Kull, "Americans on Bosnia: A Study of U.S. Public Attitudes" and "Americans on the NATO Operation in Bosnia," both Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, May 1995; Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on U.S. Involvement in Haiti," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, August 1994; and Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on Involvement in Somalia," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1993.
64. See, for instance, Steven Kull and I. M. Destler, "Misreading the American Public on International Engagement." Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1996; Steven Kull, "Americans on Bosnia: A Study of U.S. Public Attitudes" and "Americans on the NATO Operation in Bosnia," both Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, May 1995; Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on U.S. Involvement in Haiti," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, August 1994; and Steven Kull and Clay Ramsay, "U.S. Public Attitudes on Involvement in Somalia," Washington, DC: Program on International Policy Attitudes, October 1993.
65. Lindy Heinecken, "Is Selfless Service becoming a Misplaced Service Ethic?"
66. See Ricks, Making the Corps; Holsti, "A Widening Gap between the Military and Civilian Society?;" and Bacevich and Kohn, "Grand Army of the Republicans."
67. See Ricks, Making the Corps; Holsti, "A Widening Gap between the Military and Civilian Society?;" and Bacevich and Kohn, "Grand Army of the Republicans."
68. See Ricks, Making the Corps; Holsti, "A Widening Gap between the Military and Civilian Society?;" and Bacevich and Kohn, "Grand Army of the Republicans."