The impact of internal politics on Israel's reprisal policy during the 1950s

Journal of Strategic Studies

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 1-28

  Kuperman, Ranan D ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

^b OPEN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035589405     PISSN: 01402390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402390108437820     Document Type: Review

References (171)

1. Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, 'Ben-Gurion and Shavett: Conflict Management and Great Power Constraints in Israeli Foreign Policy', Middle Eastern Studies 24/3 (1988) pp.330-56; Zachi Shalom, 'The Policy of Current Security 1948-1965: Central Dilemmas', Iyunim Betkomat Israel 1 (1991) pp.141-69 (Hebrew); Gabrial Sheffer, 'Sharett's "Line", Struggle and Legacy', in S.I. Torn and N. Lucas (eds.) Israel: The First Decade of Independence (Albany, NY: SUNY Press 1995) pp.143-65.
2. Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, 'Ben-Gurion and Shavett: Conflict Management and Great Power Constraints in Israeli Foreign Policy', Middle Eastern Studies 24/3 (1988) pp.330-56; Zachi Shalom, 'The Policy of Current Security 1948-1965: Central Dilemmas', Iyunim Betkomat Israel 1 (1991) pp.141-69 (Hebrew); Gabrial Sheffer, 'Sharett's "Line", Struggle and Legacy', in S.I. Torn and N. Lucas (eds.) Israel: The First Decade of Independence (Albany, NY: SUNY Press 1995) pp.143-65.
3. Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, 'Ben-Gurion and Shavett: Conflict Management and Great Power Constraints in Israeli Foreign Policy', Middle Eastern Studies 24/3 (1988) pp.330-56; Zachi Shalom, 'The Policy of Current Security 1948-1965: Central Dilemmas', Iyunim Betkomat Israel 1 (1991) pp.141-69 (Hebrew); Gabrial Sheffer, 'Sharett's "Line", Struggle and Legacy', in S.I. Torn and N. Lucas (eds.) Israel: The First Decade of Independence (Albany, NY: SUNY Press 1995) pp.143-65.
4. Graham T. Allison, Essence of Decision (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman 1971).
5. Bahgat Korany, How Foreign Policy Decisions are made in the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview 1984) p.56.
6. Robert J. Art, 'Bureaucratic Politics and American Foreign Policy: A Critique', Policy Sciences 4 (1973) pp.467-90; Amos Perlmutter, 'The Presidential Political Center and Foreign Policy: A Critique of the Revisionist and Bureaucratic-Political Orientations', World Politics 27 (1974) pp.87-106.
7. Robert J. Art, 'Bureaucratic Politics and American Foreign Policy: A Critique', Policy Sciences 4 (1973) pp.467-90; Amos Perlmutter, 'The Presidential Political Center and Foreign Policy: A Critique of the Revisionist and Bureaucratic-Political Orientations', World Politics 27 (1974) pp.87-106.
8. Judith Kaarbo, 'Power and Influence in Foreign Policy Decision-Making: The Role of Junior Coalition Partners in German and Israeli Foreign Policy', International Studies Quarterly 40 (1996) pp.501-30.
9. Gad Ya'acobi, The Government (Tel-Aviv: Am Oved and Zmora, Bitan, Modan 1980) pp.137-44 (Hebrew).
10. Benny Morris, Israel's Border Wars, 1949-1956: Arab Infiltration, Israeli Retaliation and the Countdown to the Suez War (Tel-Aviv: Am Oved 1996) p.224 (Hebrew).
11. Yehudak Slotzky (Chief Editor). History of the Hagana ([Tel-Aviv]: Ministry of Defense 1954) (Hebrew).
12. Moshe Yanuka, From Kibye to the Mitle (Tel-Aviv: Beitan 1967) p.38 (Hebrew).
13. MAPAI Forum in the Knesset, Protocol of 18 July 1950 [Bet-Berel: Labor Party Archives].
14. Ben-Gurion Diary [Sde Boker: Ben-Gurion Archive] entry of 6 Feb. 1951.
15. MAPAI Forum of Knesset Members (note 10); General Staff Meetings, Protocol of 26 October 1949, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 10-847/1962, and Protocol of 19 February 1954, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 27-847/1962; Government Meeting, Protocol of 8 February 1951 [Jerusalem: State Archives].
16. MAPAI Forum of Knesset Members (note 10); General Staff Meetings, Protocol of 26 October 1949, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 10-847/1962, and Protocol of 19 February 1954, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 27-847/1962; Government Meeting, Protocol of 8 February 1951 [Jerusalem: State Archives].
17. MAPAI Forum of Knesset Members (note 10); General Staff Meetings, Protocol of 26 October 1949, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 10-847/1962, and Protocol of 19 February 1954, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 27-847/1962; Government Meeting, Protocol of 8 February 1951 [Jerusalem: State Archives].
18. MAPAI Forum of Knesset Members (note 10); General Staff Meetings, Protocol of 26 October 1949, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 10-847/1962, and Protocol of 19 February 1954, [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 27-847/1962; Government Meeting, Protocol of 8 February 1951 [Jerusalem: State Archives].
19. Barry M. Blechman, 'Impact of Israel's Reprisals on Behavior of the Bordering Nations Directed at Israel', Journal of Conflict Resolution 16 (1972) pp.155-81.
20. Morris (note 7) p.202.
21. Government Meeting, Protocol of 8 February 1951 (note 12); Knesset Foreign and Defense Committee, Protocol of 12 February 1951 [Jerusalem: State Archives] File Aleph/7562.
22. Government Meeting, Protocol of 8 February 1951 (note 12); Knesset Foreign and Defense Committee, Protocol of 12 February 1951 [Jerusalem: State Archives] File Aleph/7562.
23. Yamima Rosenthal (ed.), Documente of Foreign Policy of Israel, Vol. 8 (Jerusalem: State of Israel 1996) p.770 (Hebrew).
24. Uri Milstein, History of the Paratroopers (Tel-Aviv: Schalgi 1985) p.208 (Hebrew).
25. Morris (note 7) p. 237.
26. MAPAI Political Committee, Protocol of 15 April 1954 (note 10)
27. Meeting in Prime Minister's Office from 1 October 1952 [Tel-Aviv: Sharett Archive].
28. Ben-Gurion Diary (note 11) entry of 22 Dec. 1950.
29. Ibid. entry of 5 Jan. 1953.
30. Knesset Foreign and Defense Committee, Protocol of 19 October 1951 (note 9).
31. Ranan Kuperman. 'Who should authorize the IDF to initiate military operations?' Israel Affairs 8/1 (Spring 2001).
32. Government Meeting, Protocol of 4 February 1953 (note 12).
33. Thomas C. Schelling, Arms and Influence (New Haven, CT: Yale UP 1966).
34. Knesset Protocols [Jerusalem: Government of Israel] 19 Aug. 1952.
35. Government Meeting, Protocol of 4 February 1953 (note 12).
36. Government Meeting, Protocol of 24 May 1953 (note 12).
37. Government Meeting, Protocol of 31 May 1953 (note 12).
38. Government Meetings, Protocol of 11 June 1953 (note 12).
39. Anthony C. Arend and Robert J. Beck, International Law and the Use of Forces: Beyond the UN Charter Paradigm (London and NY: Routledge 1993) p. 165.
40. Shabtai Teveth, 'The Kibya Secrets, Part Two', Ha'aretz, 9 Sept. 1994 (Hebrew).
41. Moshe Sharett, Personal Diary (Tel-Aviv: Ma'ariv Publishing Guild 1978) p.59 (Hebrew).
42. Morris (note 7) p.212.
43. Sharett (note 34) pp.519-20.
44. Sharett (note 34) pp.331-2.
45. Shabtai Teveth, Cabalan ([Tel-Aviv]: Ish Dor 1992) p.63 (Hebrew).
46. MAPAI Political Committee, Protocol of 15 April 1954 (note 10)
47. Morris (note 7) p.266.
48. Government Meeting, Protocol of 11 July 1953 (note 12); Sharett (note 34), pp.672, 950.
49. Government Meeting, Protocol of 11 July 1953 (note 12); Sharett (note 34), pp.672, 950.
50. Sharett (note 34) p.1000.
51. Morris (note 7) p.449.
52. Sharett (note 34) p.676.
53. Sharett (note 34) p.840.
54. Shimon Peres, Niv Hakvotza 3 (1954) pp.413-17 (Hebrew).
55. Sharett (note 34) p.591.
56. MAPAI Political Committee, Protocol of 15 April 1954 (note 10).
57. Operations Branch, Operational Order Akrav 1, 23 March 1954 [Givataim: IDF Archive] File 13-636/1956.
58. General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 22 March 1954 (note 12); Morris, Israel's Border Wars (note 7) p.296
59. General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 22 March 1954 (note 12); Morris, Israel's Border Wars (note 7) p.296
60. Sharett (note 34) pp.415, 422, 477.
61. Summary of Protocol of Staff Meeting, 27 July 1954 (note 20)
62. Leah Inbal, 'Lavon against Ben-Gurion', Yediot Ahronot (25 Sept. 1994) (Hebrew).
63. Olshen-Dori Investigation Committee, Protocol of 10 January 1955 [Holda: Lavon Archive] File 234/2.
64. Morris (note 7) p.149.
65. Olshen-Dori (note 54).
66. General Staff meeting, Protocol of 6 December 1954 (note 12).
67. Operations Branch, Operational Order Saadia 1, 3 Feb. 1954 [Givataim: IDF Archive] File 1321-922/1975.
68. Sharett (note 34) pp.357-8.
69. Operations Branch, Telegram to the Navy from 16 March 1954 (note 58).
70. General Staff Branch, Lessons of Operational Activities (Ground Forces) of the IDF 19 Aug. 1955 [Givataim: IDF Archive] File 10-262/1957.
71. General Staff Meetings, Protocols of 28 June 1954; 5 July 1954; 6 December 1954 (note 12).
72. Benny Morris, 'Whip 6 Hit with Force', Ha'aratz 27 May 1994 (Hebrew).
73. Olshen-Dori (note 54).
74. Y. Avidar, Letter to Moshe Dayan, 9 June 1954 (note 49).
75. Moshe Dayan, Letter to Y. Avidar, 9 June 1954 (note 49).
76. Sharett (note 34) p. 551; General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 5 July 1954 (note 12).
77. Sharett (note 34) p. 551; General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 5 July 1954 (note 12).
78. General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 28 September 1954 (note 12).
79. Morris (note 7) p.175; MAPAI Political Committee, Protocol of 28 December 1955 (note 10); Zachi Shalom, David Ben-Gurion: The State of Israel and the Arab World. 1949-1956 (Beer-Sheva: U. of Ben-Gurion Press 1995) pp.177-8 (Hebrew).
80. Morris (note 7) p.175; MAPAI Political Committee, Protocol of 28 December 1955 (note 10); Zachi Shalom, David Ben-Gurion: The State of Israel and the Arab World. 1949-1956 (Beer-Sheva: U. of Ben-Gurion Press 1995) pp.177-8 (Hebrew).
81. Morris (note 7) p.175; MAPAI Political Committee, Protocol of 28 December 1955 (note 10); Zachi Shalom, David Ben-Gurion: The State of Israel and the Arab World. 1949-1956 (Beer-Sheva: U. of Ben-Gurion Press 1995) pp.177-8 (Hebrew).
82. Knesset Foreign and Defense Committee, Protocol of 6 March 1955 [Jerusalem: State Archives] File Aleph/7564.
83. Sharett (note 34) pp.591-2.
84. [Anonymous]. Untitled list of military operations between 1954 and 1956 [Givataim: IDF Archive] File 97-846/1959.
85. Operations Branch, Operational Order Maim 2, 23 Sept. 1954 (note 49).
86. Ilan Asia, The Dayan Syndrome: Four Wars and One Peace (Tel-Aviv: Yedioth Ahronoth 1995) p.90 (Hebrew).
87. Uri Bialer, Lecture at Ben-Gurion's House, 10 July 1996. Zeev Drori, 'Influence of the Junior Military Ranks on the Defensive Escalation', Hetz Shaor: Gaza Raid and the Israeli Policy of Retaliation During the Fifties, Motti Golani (ed.) (Tel-Aviv: Ministry of Defense 1994) p.135 (Hebrew) and Shlomo Aharonson and Dan Horowitz, 'The Strategy of Controlled Retaliation - The Israeli Example', State and Government 1 (1971) pp.77-99 (Hebrew).
88. Uri Bialer, Lecture at Ben-Gurion's House, 10 July 1996. Zeev Drori, 'Influence of the Junior Military Ranks on the Defensive Escalation', Hetz Shaor: Gaza Raid and the Israeli Policy of Retaliation During the Fifties, Motti Golani (ed.) (Tel-Aviv: Ministry of Defense 1994) p.135 (Hebrew) and Shlomo Aharonson and Dan Horowitz, 'The Strategy of Controlled Retaliation - The Israeli Example', State and Government 1 (1971) pp.77-99 (Hebrew).
89. Uri Bialer, Lecture at Ben-Gurion's House, 10 July 1996. Zeev Drori, 'Influence of the Junior Military Ranks on the Defensive Escalation', Hetz Shaor: Gaza Raid and the Israeli Policy of Retaliation During the Fifties, Motti Golani (ed.) (Tel-Aviv: Ministry of Defense 1994) p.135 (Hebrew) and Shlomo Aharonson and Dan Horowitz, 'The Strategy of Controlled Retaliation - The Israeli Example', State and Government 1 (1971) pp.77-99 (Hebrew).
90. Yaacov Erez and Ilan Kfir, Discussions with Dayan (Givataim: Masada 1981) p.36 (Hebrew).
91. History Branch of the IDF, The Period of Retaliatory Actions 1953-1956, n.d. [1958?] (note 20).
92. Yigal Allon, Maneuvers of War: Security Issues ([Tel-Aviv]: Hakibutz Hameuchad 1960) p. 16 (Hebrew); Moshe Dayan, 'Military Operations during Times of Peace', Maarachot 33 (1959) pp.54-61 (Hebrew).
93. Yigal Allon, Maneuvers of War: Security Issues ([Tel-Aviv]: Hakibutz Hameuchad 1960) p. 16 (Hebrew); Moshe Dayan, 'Military Operations during Times of Peace', Maarachot 33 (1959) pp.54-61 (Hebrew).
94. Schilling (note 26) p.78.
95. Doron Almog, The Israel Strategy of Deterrence as a Model of Accumulated Deterrence (MA thesis, U. of Haifa 1997) pp.51-2 (Hebrew)
96. For examples see: Operations Branch, 29 March 1954; 1 July 1954; 1 March 1955 (note 49).
97. Horowitz and Aharonson (note 75). See also Dan Horowitz, The Israeli Perception of National Security: Stability and Variation in Israeli Strategic Thought (Jerusalem: Hebrew Univ. 1974) p. 15 (Hebrew).
98. Arend and Beck (note 32) p.165.
99. Sharett (note 34) pp.591-2.
100. Ben Gurion Diary (note 11) entry of 23 July 1956; and Moshe Dayan, Milestones (Jerusalem: Idanim 1976) p.217.
101. Ben Gurion Diary (note 11) entry of 23 July 1956; and Moshe Dayan, Milestones (Jerusalem: Idanim 1976) p.217.
102. Hanan Alon, Countering Palestinian Terrorism in Israel: Toward a Policy Analysis of Countermeasures (Santa Monica, CA: RAND 1980) pp.96-100.
103. Motti Golani, 'Israel and the Azza Operation - Continuation or Change?' Hetz Shaor (note 75) pp.23-33 (Hebrew).
104. Mordechai Bar-On, The Gates of Gaza (Tel-Aviv: Am-Oved 1992) p.87 (Hebrew).
105. Sharett (note 34) p.800.
106. Mordechai Gur, D Company: A Story of a Parachute Company ([Tel-Aviv]: Ministry of Defense 1977) (Hebrew).
107. Sharett (note 34) pp.447, 591.
108. Dov Tamari, 'Operation of Special Units and the Army During Reprisal Operations', Reprisal Policy - Military and Political Aspects, Conference at Tel-Aviv University, 9 Jan. 1995.
109. Morris (note 7) p.372.
110. General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 28 August 1955 [Givataim, IDF Archive] File 29-847/1962.
111. Asia (note 74) p.94.
112. Operations Branch, Operational Order Zav 1, Oct. 1954 (note 49).
113. Sharett (note 34) pp.923, 955, 1005.
114. Motti Golani, 'The Sinai War - 1956' (PhD diss., Haifa Univ. 1992) p.992 (Hebrew).
115. Sharett (note 34) p.894.
116. Drori (note 75).
117. Morris (note 7) p.386.
118. Knesset Foreign and Defense Committee, Protocol of 27 December 1955 (note 15).
119. Sharett (note 34) pp.1282-4.
120. Ibid, pp.896, 900.
121. David Tal, 'The Israeli Responses to Infiltration in its Territory from Jordan and Egypt, 1949-1956' (Master thesis, Tel-Aviv Univ. 1990) p.47 (Hebrew).
122. Knesset Defense and Foreign Affairs Committee, Protocol of 7 September 1954 (note 15).
123. Mordechai Bar-On, Interview, 26 Nov. 1996
124. History Branch (note 20).
125. Operations Branch, Operational Order Afarsek, 23 Sept. 1955 (note 49).
126. Sharett (note 34) pp.972, 1195.
127. Morris (note 7) p. 413; General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 28 August 1955 (note 93).
128. Morris (note 7) p. 413; General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 28 August 1955 (note 93).
129. Analysis of Shomron Operation, 17 Oct. 1956 (note 58).
130. Morris (note 7) pp.624.
131. David Tal, 'The Development of the Perception of Israel's Current Security' (PhD diss., TelAviv Univ. 1994), p.330; Ha'aretz, 11 Dec. 1955.
132. David Tal, 'The Development of the Perception of Israel's Current Security' (PhD diss., TelAviv Univ. 1994), p.330; Ha'aretz, 11 Dec. 1955.
133. Nissim Bar Yaacov, The Israeli-Syrian Armistice: Problems of Implementation, 1949-1966 (Jerusalem: The Magnus Press 1967) pp.221-2.
134. Knesset Foreign and Defense Committee, Protocol of 27 December 1955 (note 15).
135. Bar On (note 88) pp.66, 87; Motti Golani, 'The Historical Place of the Czech-Egyptian Arms Deal', Middle Eastern Studies 31 (1995) pp.803-27; and Maj. Gen. Uzi Narkiss, Lecture at Ben-Gurion's House, 10 July 1996.
136. Bar On (note 88) pp.66, 87; Motti Golani, 'The Historical Place of the Czech-Egyptian Arms Deal', Middle Eastern Studies 31 (1995) pp.803-27; and Maj. Gen. Uzi Narkiss, Lecture at Ben-Gurion's House, 10 July 1996.
137. Bar On (note 88) pp.66, 87; Motti Golani, 'The Historical Place of the Czech-Egyptian Arms Deal', Middle Eastern Studies 31 (1995) pp.803-27; and Maj. Gen. Uzi Narkiss, Lecture at Ben-Gurion's House, 10 July 1996.
138. Morris (note 7) p.388.
139. Bar-On (note 88) p.434.
140. General Staff Meeting, Protocol of 26 December 1955 (note 94).
141. Tal (note 114).
142. Zachi Shalom, Policy in the Shadow of Controversy (Tel-Aviv: Ma'arachot 1996) (Hebrew) pp.92, 178.
143. MAPAI Political Committee, Protocol of 28 December 1955 (note 10).
144. Bar-On (note 107).
145. Shalom (note 122) p.125.
146. Ben-Gurion Diary, entry of 11 July 1956 (note II).
147. Morris (note 7) p.416.
148. Moshe Dayan, 'The Sinai Campaign', in Yaacov and I. Kfir (eds.) The IDF Army: A Military and Defense Encyclopedia, Vol. I, E. ([Tel- Aviv]: Ministry of Defense 1982) pp. 113-19 (Hebrew).
149. Dayan (note 85) pp.213-14.
150. Bar-On (note 107).
151. Morris (note 7) p.404.
152. Den-Gurion Diary, entry of 17 July 1956 (note 11); Dayan (note 85) p.221
153. Ben-Gurion Diary, entry of 7 Oct. 1956 (note 11).
154. Erez and Kfir (note 76) p.32.
155. History Branch (note 20); and Morris (note 7) pp.424-5.
156. Analysis of Shomron Operation (note 112).
157. Knesset Foreign and Defense Committee, Protocol of 30 December 1955 (note 15).
158. Erez and Kfir (note 76) p.30.
159. Ibid. p.73.
160. Morris (note 30) p.398
161. Bar-On (note 107).
162. Dayan (note 85) p.443.
163. Erez and Kfir (note 76) p.37.
164. Brian Urquhart, 'The United Nations in the Middle East: A 50 Year Perspective', Muddle East Journal 49 (1995) p.572.
165. Knesset Protocols, (note 27) 22 Feb. 1957.
166. Bar-On (note 107).
167. Tel-Aviv History Department, Conference in Commemoration of the Collusion in 1956 between Britain, France and Israel, 18 Oct. 1996.
168. Dayan (note 85) pp.352-5.
169. Knesset Protocols (note 27) 18 July 1962.
170. Sharett (note 34) p.59.
171. Sheffer (note 1).