The legacy of colonial labour unions in Indonesia

Australian Journal of Politics and History

Volumn 47, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 85-100

  Ingleson, John ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035584718     PISSN: 00049522     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8497.00220     Document Type: Article

References (51)

1. For a discussion of labour unions in Batavia after 1945 and leadership continuities with pre-war labour unions see Jan Elliott, "'Bersatoe Kita Berdiri Bertjerai Kita Djatoeh' [United We Stand Divided We Fall]. Workers and Unions in Indonesia: Jakarta 1945-1965", unpublished doctoral thesis, University of New South Wales, 1997, especially Part 1. See also, Iskandar Tedjasukmana, The Political Character of the Indonesian Trade Union Movement (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958) and Colin Brown, "The Politics of Trade Union Formation in the Java Sugar Industry, 1945-1949", Modern Asian Studies, 28, 1 (1994), pp. 77-98.
2. For a discussion of labour unions in Batavia after 1945 and leadership continuities with pre-war labour unions see Jan Elliott, "'Bersatoe Kita Berdiri Bertjerai Kita Djatoeh' [United We Stand Divided We Fall]. Workers and Unions in Indonesia: Jakarta 1945-1965", unpublished doctoral thesis, University of New South Wales, 1997, especially Part 1. See also, Iskandar Tedjasukmana, The Political Character of the Indonesian Trade Union Movement (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958) and Colin Brown, "The Politics of Trade Union Formation in the Java Sugar Industry, 1945-1949", Modern Asian Studies, 28, 1 (1994), pp. 77-98.
3. For a discussion of labour unions in Batavia after 1945 and leadership continuities with pre-war labour unions see Jan Elliott, "'Bersatoe Kita Berdiri Bertjerai Kita Djatoeh' [United We Stand Divided We Fall]. Workers and Unions in Indonesia: Jakarta 1945-1965", unpublished doctoral thesis, University of New South Wales, 1997, especially Part 1. See also, Iskandar Tedjasukmana, The Political Character of the Indonesian Trade Union Movement (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958) and Colin Brown, "The Politics of Trade Union Formation in the Java Sugar Industry, 1945-1949", Modern Asian Studies, 28, 1 (1994), pp. 77-98.
4. Municipal Councils were established by the colonial government in the early 1900s - Batavia, Surabaya, Semarang and Bandung were the first cities to have Councils. Councils were dominated by Europeans, elected by only a minority of European residents in the cities, but with small native memberships elected by the tiny number of middle class Indonesians. Mayors were appointed directly by the Governor-General. For a discussion of the administration of colonial towns and cities see: James L. Cobban, "Kampungs and Conflict in Colonial Society", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, XIX, 2 (September 1988), pp. 260-91 and J.L. Cobban, "Uncontrolled Urban Settlements and the Kampung Question in Semarang, 1905-1940", Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, 130, 3 (1974), pp. 403-27. See also documentation in S.L van der Wal, De Opkomst van de Nationalistische Beweging in Nederlands-Indie (Groningen: Wolters, 1967). See also Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969).
5. Municipal Councils were established by the colonial government in the early 1900s - Batavia, Surabaya, Semarang and Bandung were the first cities to have Councils. Councils were dominated by Europeans, elected by only a minority of European residents in the cities, but with small native memberships elected by the tiny number of middle class Indonesians. Mayors were appointed directly by the Governor-General. For a discussion of the administration of colonial towns and cities see: James L. Cobban, "Kampungs and Conflict in Colonial Society", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, XIX, 2 (September 1988), pp. 260-91 and J.L. Cobban, "Uncontrolled Urban Settlements and the Kampung Question in Semarang, 1905-1940", Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, 130, 3 (1974), pp. 403-27. See also documentation in S.L van der Wal, De Opkomst van de Nationalistische Beweging in Nederlands-Indie (Groningen: Wolters, 1967). See also Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969).
6. Municipal Councils were established by the colonial government in the early 1900s - Batavia, Surabaya, Semarang and Bandung were the first cities to have Councils. Councils were dominated by Europeans, elected by only a minority of European residents in the cities, but with small native memberships elected by the tiny number of middle class Indonesians. Mayors were appointed directly by the Governor-General. For a discussion of the administration of colonial towns and cities see: James L. Cobban, "Kampungs and Conflict in Colonial Society", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, XIX, 2 (September 1988), pp. 260-91 and J.L. Cobban, "Uncontrolled Urban Settlements and the Kampung Question in Semarang, 1905-1940", Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, 130, 3 (1974), pp. 403-27. See also documentation in S.L van der Wal, De Opkomst van de Nationalistische Beweging in Nederlands-Indie (Groningen: Wolters, 1967). See also Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969).
7. Municipal Councils were established by the colonial government in the early 1900s - Batavia, Surabaya, Semarang and Bandung were the first cities to have Councils. Councils were dominated by Europeans, elected by only a minority of European residents in the cities, but with small native memberships elected by the tiny number of middle class Indonesians. Mayors were appointed directly by the Governor-General. For a discussion of the administration of colonial towns and cities see: James L. Cobban, "Kampungs and Conflict in Colonial Society", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, XIX, 2 (September 1988), pp. 260-91 and J.L. Cobban, "Uncontrolled Urban Settlements and the Kampung Question in Semarang, 1905-1940", Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, 130, 3 (1974), pp. 403-27. See also documentation in S.L van der Wal, De Opkomst van de Nationalistische Beweging in Nederlands-Indie (Groningen: Wolters, 1967). See also Bernhard Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969).
8. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
9. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
10. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
11. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
12. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
13. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
14. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
15. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
16. There is an extensive literature on the social and political history of the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, including works by Susan Abeyasekere, One Hand Clapping: Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch 1939-1942 (Clayton, VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1976); Alfian, Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organisation Under Dutch Colonialism (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1989); William H. Frederick, Visions and Heat The Making of the Indonesian Revolution (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989); John Ingleson, Road to Exile. The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927-1934 (Singapore: Asian Studies Association of Australia by Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1979) and In Search of Justice. Workers and Unions in Colonial Java, 1908-1926 (Singapore, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Ruth T. McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965); Robert van Neil, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1960); Takashi Shiraishi, An Age in Motion. Popular Radicalism in Java, 1912-1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); W.F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society in Transition (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1956).
17. See John Ingleson, Road to Exile, especially chapter 4. The membership figures of labour unions are compiled from the annual reports in Indische Verslag and from reports prepared by the Labour Office.
18. A selection of the official reportage has been published. See the series often volumes edited by S.L van der Wal and R.C. Kwantes published by the Committee for Source Publications on the History of the Netherlands-Indies 1900-1942 of the Netherlands Historical Society. See also Harry A. Poeze ed., Politiek-Politioneele Overzichten van Nederlandsch-Indie (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1982-94), 5 volumes.
19. A selection of the official reportage has been published. See the series often volumes edited by S.L van der Wal and R.C. Kwantes published by the Committee for Source Publications on the History of the Netherlands-Indies 1900-1942 of the Netherlands Historical Society. See also Harry A. Poeze ed., Politiek-Politioneele Overzichten van Nederlandsch-Indie (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1982-94), 5 volumes.
20. See Mededeelingen aan Politiek-Politioneele Gezaghebbenden, 1 (27 March 1938), enclosed in Secret Mail Report 1938/377, Ministry of Colonies Archives, General State Archives, The Hague.
21. The PNI Bandung branch had 5746 members in 1930, the vast majority of whom were urban school teachers, government employees, clerks and tradesmen with a sprinkling of the professional self-employed at higher echelons. Total PNI membership in 1930 was 10,000 - 2017 in Batavia. Bandung and Batavia together were 80 per cent of membership. If Surabaya was included then this moved to 90 per cent. These were also the three major cities for labour union membership. See Ingleson, Road to Exile, p. 106.
22. Examples abound. See the speech of Muhamad Soehiar at public meeting of the PKVB, one of the unions for nurses, during its Annual Congress on 25 December 1931 at the Mangkunegoro Society in Solo, Central Java, which was attended by 800 people. Soehiar urged a renewed effort to establish cooperatives because of the Depression. In his speech he gave a brief history of the emergence of the cooperative movement in England in eighteenth century, mentioning in particular the work of Robert Owen. Soeara PKVB, January 1932. The PVKB was very active in establishing chemist shops, polyclinics and other cooperative services for members. For a brief history of the cooperative movement in colonial Indonesia, see M. Djojohadikoesoema, 10 tahun kooperasi (Batavia: 1941).
23. See, E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968).
24. See, for example, a report in 1938 on a meeting of Parindra, one of the major nationalist political parties in Mededeelingen aan de Politiek-Politioneele Gezaghebbenden, Number 3, 17 February 1938, Secret Mail Report 1938/188, Ministry of Colonies Archives, General State Archives, The Hague.
25. See Elliott, "'Bersatoe Kita Berdiri Bertjerai Kita Djatoeh'".
26. I have discussed this theme at some length in "Labour Unions and the Provision of Social Security in Colonial Java", Asian Studies Review, 24, 4 (December 2000), pp. 471-500.
27. Soeara PVK, November-December 1937.
28. Soeara Boeroeh Indonesia, 15 April 1931.
29. See Djojohadikoesoema, 10 tahun kooperasi.
30. See for example, Soeara PKVB, August-September 1932.
31. For a discussion of the VSTP and early labour unions, see Ingleson, In Search of Justice and McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism.
32. For a discussion of the VSTP and early labour unions, see Ingleson, In Search of Justice and McVey, The Rise of Indonesian Communism.
33. This union was called the Perhimpunan Beambte Spoor dan Tram di Hindia Belanda - PBST.
34. See for example, the speech of PNI leader Gatot Mangkupradja at the party's second Congress in May 1929, as reported in Politiek-Politioneele Overzicht, enclosed in V 11September 1929-N18, Ministry of Colonies Archives, General State Archives, The Hague.
35. See Ingleson, In Search of Justice, chapters 3-5.
36. Savitri Scherer, "Harmony and Dissonance: Early Nationalist Thought in Java", unpublished MA thesis, Cornell University, 1975.
37. Soeara PKVB, May-June 1932.
38. See Politiek-Politioneele Overzicht, January 1930, enclosed in volume 26 May 1931-V9, Ministry of Colonies Archives, General State Archives, The Hague.
39. The Volksraad was the so-called People's Council established in 1918. It had few real powers and its electorate was narrowly based.
40. Sejarah dan perkembangan Bumiputera 1912, 1912-1982, Jakarta: 1982: 162-63.
41. The Labour Office was established in 1921. It became a major source of information and advice to the colonial government for its management of urban labour. It collected statistical information on the workforces in factories and workshops, on labour union membership and on labour disputes and its officers carried out regular health and safety inspections as required by the colony's Factory Act. When major strikes occurred it sent investigators into the factories and kampung to interview workers and prepare detailed reports for Batavia. In the 1930s it produced a series of valuable reports on unemployment in Indonesia, on the batik industry, on the cigarette industry at Malang and on the plantation industry on Java. These industry reports were scathing in their criticism of wages and working conditions and were used by the colonial government to pressure the industries to put their houses in order.
42. See John Ingleson, "Urban Wage Labour in Colonial Java: The Growth of a Skilled Labour Force", in Michael Pinches and Salim Lakha eds, Wage Labour and Social Change (Clayton VIC Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1987), pp. 141-157 and Ingleson, "Labour unions and the Provision of Social Security in Colonial Java".
43. See John Ingleson, "Urban Wage Labour in Colonial Java: The Growth of a Skilled Labour Force", in Michael Pinches and Salim Lakha eds, Wage Labour and Social Change (Clayton VIC Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1987), pp. 141-157 and Ingleson, "Labour unions and the Provision of Social Security in Colonial Java".
44. See Ingleson, In Search of Justice, pp. 155-209.
45. See the irregular journal of the Persatuan Vakbonden Pegawai Negeri [ The Federation of Public Sector Labour Unions], Persatoean Sekerdja, 1931-.
46. Doenia Pegadaian, 25 July 1937
47. There is as yet no study of labour unions for Chinese workers in colonial Indonesia.
48. See John Ingleson, "Life and Work in Colonial Cities: Harbour Workers in Java in the 1910s and 1920s", Modern Asian Studies, 17, 3 (1983), p. 466.
49. De Locomotief, 3 August 1925.
50. See Ingleson, In Search of Justice, pp. 217-28.
51. Ibid., pp. 282-85.