Government enterprises & industrial relations in late Qing China

Australian Journal of Politics and History

Volumn 47, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 4-23

  Pong, David ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035584425     PISSN: 00049522     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8497.00216     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. The character for "well" is like a noughts and crosses matrix. In the well-field system, eight of the fields were owned by the tillers, who cooperatively farmed the remaining field remitting the produce in tax.
2. These questions are an indirect way to define what is involved in the process of class formation. For a discussion of these issues, see Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg eds, Working-class formation: nineteenth-century patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), particularly Katznelson's chapter, "Working-Class Formation: Constructing Cases and Comparisons", and that by Jürgen Kocka, "Problems of Working-Class Formation in Germany: The Early Years, 1800-1875".
3. Zhongguo laogong yundong shi bianxuan weiyuanhui [Editorial Committee for the History of the Labour Movement in China] eds, Zhongguo laogong yundong shi [History of the Labour Movement in China] (Taibei: 1959, 5 volumes), volume I, pp. 1-3.
4. C.M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution (London: Routledge, 1993, third edition), pp. 277-278; N.F.R. Crafts, "Industrial Revolution in England and France: Some thoughts on why England was first", in J. Mokyr ed., The Economics of the Industrial Revolution (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 119-131.
5. C.M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution (London: Routledge, 1993, third edition), pp. 277-278; N.F.R. Crafts, "Industrial Revolution in England and France: Some thoughts on why England was first", in J. Mokyr ed., The Economics of the Industrial Revolution (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 119-131.
6. Xu Dixin and Wu Chengming eds., Zhongguo zibenzhuyi de mengya (The Sprouts of Capitalism in China), (Beijing: 1985), volume 1.
7. References here are from the recently translated English edition Chinese Capitalism, 1522-1840 (London: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 10-14.
8. Xu and Wu, Chinese Capitalism, p. 404.
9. Ibid., pp. 405-408.
10. Zhao Dexing and Zhou Xiuluan, "Shijiushiji xiabanqi Zhongguo jindai junshi gongye de xingzhi he tedian" [The nature and characteristics of China's modern military industries in the latter half of the nineteenth century], Jingji wenti [Problems in Economics] (1958), p. 4. Cited by Jing Jiang (Jiang Duo), "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gongye de xingzhi" [On the nature of the modern military industries of the Qing government], in Huang Yifeng and Jiang Duo, Zhongguo jindai jingjishi lunwen ji [Studies on modern Chinese economic history] (Yangzhou: Jiangsu Renmin chubanshe, 1981), pp. 313-314.
11. Zhao Dexing and Zhou Xiuluan, "Shijiushiji xiabanqi Zhongguo jindai junshi gongye de xingzhi he tedian" [The nature and characteristics of China's modern military industries in the latter half of the nineteenth century], Jingji wenti [Problems in Economics] (1958), p. 4. Cited by Jing Jiang (Jiang Duo), "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gongye de xingzhi" [On the nature of the modern military industries of the Qing government], in Huang Yifeng and Jiang Duo, Zhongguo jindai jingjishi lunwen ji [Studies on modern Chinese economic history] (Yangzhou: Jiangsu Renmin chubanshe, 1981), pp. 313-314.
12. Zhongguo laogong yundong shi bianxuan weiyuanhui eds, Zhongguo laogong yundong shi, pp. 29-30.
13. Lau Yee-cheung, "The Socialist Thought of Hu Hanmin," in Philip Yuen-sang Leung and Edwin Pak-wah Leung eds, Modern China in Transition: Studies in Honor of Immanuel C.Y. Hsü (Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 1995), pp. 171-184.
14. Later, Sun Yat-sen would want to exploit the nationalism of the workers but defuse their socialist drive by insisting that "the difference between the workers of China and elsewhere is that the workers in foreign lands are oppressed by their own capitalists, not those from another country". "The Chinese workers, on the contrary, are not oppressed by their own capitalists, but by capitalists from other countries". Thus, "to elevate the status of China's workers, one must first elevate the status of China". Zhongguo laogong yundong shi bianxuan weiyuanhui, Zhongguo laogong yundong shi, p. 30.
15. Strictly speaking, the very first foreign-owned industry in China was the London Missionary Society Press, established in 1843, followed by the Mei Hwa Printing Office of the American Presbyterian Church. A number of newspaper printing presses then appeared in various treaty ports. We have no figures for the workers in these printing shops. Liu Mingkui and Tang Yuliang eds, Zhongguo gongren yundong shi [A History of The Chinese Labor Movement] (Guangzhou: Guandong Renmin chubanshe, 1998, 6 volumes), volume I, pp. 18-19. Volume authors include the editors and Liu Xingxing. For a list of the foreign-owned industries up to 1894, see Jian Bozhan and Zheng Tianting eds, Zhongguo tongshi cankao ziliao [A General History of China: Sources] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1980), volume I, pp. 480-488.
16. Strictly speaking, the very first foreign-owned industry in China was the London Missionary Society Press, established in 1843, followed by the Mei Hwa Printing Office of the American Presbyterian Church. A number of newspaper printing presses then appeared in various treaty ports. We have no figures for the workers in these printing shops. Liu Mingkui and Tang Yuliang eds, Zhongguo gongren yundong shi [A History of The Chinese Labor Movement] (Guangzhou: Guandong Renmin chubanshe, 1998, 6 volumes), volume I, pp. 18-19. Volume authors include the editors and Liu Xingxing. For a list of the foreign-owned industries up to 1894, see Jian Bozhan and Zheng Tianting eds, Zhongguo tongshi cankao ziliao [A General History of China: Sources] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1980), volume I, pp. 480-488.
17. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 19.
18. Ibid., volume I, pp. 16-21.
19. Ibid., volume I, pp. 21-22. For a list of the defense industries, see Jian and Zheng, Zhongguo tongshi cankao ziliao, volume I, pp. 489-491.
20. Ibid., volume I, pp. 21-22. For a list of the defense industries, see Jian and Zheng, Zhongguo tongshi cankao ziliao, volume I, pp. 489-491.
21. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 22-24.
22. Ibid., volume I, pp. 23-24.
23. Ibid., volume I, pp. 24-25.
24. Ibid., volume I, pp. 21-27. The authors use slightly different categories, I have shifted them around to facilitate analysis and comparisons later on.
25. Zhao Qin, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong" [The Chinese Labour Movement before and after the 1911 Revolution], in Zhongguo Renmin daxue Qing-shi yanjiusuo eds, Zhongguo jindai shi lunwen ji [Studies on Modern Chinese History] (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1979), volume II, p. 1047.
26. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 2, 31-52, and 356. There are no good data for this period, and estimates differ wildly between sources.
27. Xu and Wu, Chinese Capitalism, pp. 11-13 and 424-425. Labour contractors were known by different names in different places or trades. See Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 194-198.
28. Xu and Wu, Chinese Capitalism, pp. 11-13 and 424-425. Labour contractors were known by different names in different places or trades. See Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 194-198.
29. Lowe Chuan-hua, Facing Labor Issues in China (Shanghai: China Institute of Pacific Relations, 1933), pp. 19-23.
30. Ibid., p. 20. On the use of the contract labour system as an administrative shortcut, see Tim Wright, "'A Method of Evading Management' - Contract Labor in Chinese Coal Mines before 1937", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23, 4 (October 1981), pp. 656-678.
31. Ibid., p. 20. On the use of the contract labour system as an administrative shortcut, see Tim Wright, "'A Method of Evading Management' - Contract Labor in Chinese Coal Mines before 1937", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23, 4 (October 1981), pp. 656-678.
32. Lowe, Facing Labor Issues, p. 22.
33. Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye", p. 314.
34. Ibid.
35. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 136-137.
36. Ibid., volume I, pp. 145-146.
37. Ibid., volume I, pp. 148-149.
38. Ibid., volume I, pp. 186-194.
39. Ibid., volume I, pp. 181-185, 198-199 and 203-205.
40. Ibid., volume I, pp. 153-156.
41. Ibid., volume I, pp. 148-149.
42. Jiang Duo, "Zhongguo zaoqi gongren jieji zhuangkuang chutan" [Exploring the conditions of the Chinese working class in its early phase], in Jiang Duo ed., Jiang Duo wencun - jindai Zhongguo yangwu yundong yu ziben zhuyi luncong [Studies by Jiang Duo on the yangwu movement and capitalism in modern China] (Jilin: Jilin renmin chubanshe, 1996), pp. 691 and 694-695.
43. North-China Herald, 3 November 1893.
44. Zhou Gucheng, Zhongguo jindai jingjishi lun [On the Economic History of Modern China] (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 1987), pp. 85-86; Jiang Duo, "Zhongguo zaoqi gongren jieji," pp. 689-693.
45. Zhou Gucheng, Zhongguo jindai jingjishi lun [On the Economic History of Modern China] (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 1987), pp. 85-86; Jiang Duo, "Zhongguo zaoqi gongren jieji," pp. 689-693.
46. Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye", pp. 314-315.
47. re Section, Lettres de la Guerre, Années 1869-1887; D. Thibaudier (Sub-engineer), "Arsenal de Fou-tchéou", 8 June 1868, in ibid., BB4 1555: Arsenal de Foutchéou (1866-1877), correspondance et pièces diverses (1870-1895), 17 May 1908; Chinese Recorder, January 1870, p. 218; Wu Zancheng's memorial of 18 June 1877 (Guangxu 3.5.8) in Taiwan, China, Yuezhedang, GX 3/5 shang.
48. re Section, Lettres de la Guerre, Années 1869-1887; D. Thibaudier (Sub-engineer), "Arsenal de Fou-tchéou", 8 June 1868, in ibid., BB4 1555: Arsenal de Foutchéou (1866-1877), correspondance et pièces diverses (1870-1895), 17 May 1908; Chinese Recorder, January 1870, p. 218; Wu Zancheng's memorial of 18 June 1877 (Guangxu 3.5.8) in Taiwan, China, Yuezhedang, GX 3/5 shang.
49. re Section, Lettres de la Guerre, Années 1869-1887; D. Thibaudier (Sub-engineer), "Arsenal de Fou-tchéou", 8 June 1868, in ibid., BB4 1555: Arsenal de Foutchéou (1866-1877), correspondance et pièces diverses (1870-1895), 17 May 1908; Chinese Recorder, January 1870, p. 218; Wu Zancheng's memorial of 18 June 1877 (Guangxu 3.5.8) in Taiwan, China, Yuezhedang, GX 3/5 shang.
50. re Section, Lettres de la Guerre, Années 1869-1887; D. Thibaudier (Sub-engineer), "Arsenal de Fou-tchéou", 8 June 1868, in ibid., BB4 1555: Arsenal de Foutchéou (1866-1877), correspondance et pièces diverses (1870-1895), 17 May 1908; Chinese Recorder, January 1870, p. 218; Wu Zancheng's memorial of 18 June 1877 (Guangxu 3.5.8) in Taiwan, China, Yuezhedang, GX 3/5 shang.
51. Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye," pp. 315-316.
52. David Pong, Shen Pao-chen and China's Modernization in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 142 and 212; North-China Herald, 13 January and 29 July 1876.
53. David Pong, Shen Pao-chen and China's Modernization in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 142 and 212; North-China Herald, 13 January and 29 July 1876.
54. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 184.
55. Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye," p. 318.
56. Contenson, "Rapport"; Thibaudier, "Arsenal de Fou-tchéou"; Chinese Recorder, January 1870, p. 218;
57. Wu Zancheng's memorial of 18 June 1877.
58. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 153 and 158-159.
59. Jiang Duo, "Zhongguo zaoqi gongren jieji," pp. 691-692.
60. Zhang Zhidong (Yuan Shuyi, Sun Huafeng, and Li Bingxin eds), Zhang Zhidong quanji [The Complete Works of Zhang Zhidong] (Wuhan: Hebei remin chubanshe, 1998, 12 volumes), see volume 2, pp. 918-919; North-China Herald, 20 July 1894.
61. Zhang Zhidong (Yuan Shuyi, Sun Huafeng, and Li Bingxin eds), Zhang Zhidong quanji [The Complete Works of Zhang Zhidong] (Wuhan: Hebei remin chubanshe, 1998, 12 volumes), see volume 2, pp. 918-919; North-China Herald, 20 July 1894.
62. Zhang, Zhang Zhidong quanji, volume 2, p. 934.
63. North-China Herald, 19 May 1893.
64. Haifang dang comp., Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo (Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica] (Facsimile of the maritime defence file) (Taibei: 1957, 9 volumes), volume II, p. 135; Shen Bao-zhen (Wu Yuanbing comp.), Shen Wensu gong zhengshu (Suzhou: 1880), volume 4, 2b-3; Min-Hou xianzhi [Gazetteer of Min and Houguan districts] (Fuzhou: 1933), volume 68, p. 29.
65. Haifang dang comp., Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo (Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica] (Facsimile of the maritime defence file) (Taibei: 1957, 9 volumes), volume II, p. 135; Shen Bao-zhen (Wu Yuanbing comp.), Shen Wensu gong zhengshu (Suzhou: 1880), volume 4, 2b-3; Min-Hou xianzhi [Gazetteer of Min and Houguan districts] (Fuzhou: 1933), volume 68, p. 29.
66. Haifang dang comp., Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo (Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica] (Facsimile of the maritime defence file) (Taibei: 1957, 9 volumes), volume II, p. 135; Shen Bao-zhen (Wu Yuanbing comp.), Shen Wensu gong zhengshu (Suzhou: 1880), volume 4, 2b-3; Min-Hou xianzhi [Gazetteer of Min and Houguan districts] (Fuzhou: 1933), volume 68, p. 29.
67. Lin, Fujian chuanzheng, p. 46; Haifang dang, volume II, p. 121; Thibaudier, "Arsenal de Foutchéou", pp. 47-49; Henry N. Shore, The Flight of the Lapwing, a Naval Officer's Jottings in China, Formosa, and Japan (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1881), pp. 101-102; "Biography of Lin Binghui" in Min-Hou xianzhi, volume 88, p. 12.
68. Lin, Fujian chuanzheng, p. 46; Haifang dang, volume II, p. 121; Thibaudier, "Arsenal de Foutchéou", pp. 47-49; Henry N. Shore, The Flight of the Lapwing, a Naval Officer's Jottings in China, Formosa, and Japan (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1881), pp. 101-102; "Biography of Lin Binghui" in Min-Hou xianzhi, volume 88, p. 12.
69. Lin, Fujian chuanzheng, p. 46; Haifang dang, volume II, p. 121; Thibaudier, "Arsenal de Foutchéou", pp. 47-49; Henry N. Shore, The Flight of the Lapwing, a Naval Officer's Jottings in China, Formosa, and Japan (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1881), pp. 101-102; "Biography of Lin Binghui" in Min-Hou xianzhi, volume 88, p. 12.
70. Lin, Fujian chuanzheng, p. 46; Haifang dang, volume II, p. 121; Thibaudier, "Arsenal de Foutchéou", pp. 47-49; Henry N. Shore, The Flight of the Lapwing, a Naval Officer's Jottings in China, Formosa, and Japan (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1881), pp. 101-102; "Biography of Lin Binghui" in Min-Hou xianzhi, volume 88, p. 12.
71. Lin, Fujian chuanzheng, p. 46; Haifang dang, volume II, p. 121; Thibaudier, "Arsenal de Foutchéou", pp. 47-49; Henry N. Shore, The Flight of the Lapwing, a Naval Officer's Jottings in China, Formosa, and Japan (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1881), pp. 101-102; "Biography of Lin Binghui" in Min-Hou xianzhi, volume 88, p. 12.
72. Da-Qing kuangwu zhangcheng (Qing Regulations for the Mining Industry) (1970), p. 28; Da-Qing fakuei daquan (Qing Code), "Minzhengbu" (Civil Affairs Section), volume 7, pp. 1-2, cited in Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 141.
73. Da-Qing kuangwu zhangcheng (Qing Regulations for the Mining Industry) (1970), p. 28; Da-Qing fakuei daquan (Qing Code), "Minzhengbu" (Civil Affairs Section), volume 7, pp. 1-2, cited in Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 141.
74. Da-Qing kuangwu zhangcheng (Qing Regulations for the Mining Industry) (1970), p. 28; Da-Qing fakuei daquan (Qing Code), "Minzhengbu" (Civil Affairs Section), volume 7, pp. 1-2, cited in Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 141.
75. Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", pp. 1046-47.
76. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 332;
77. Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", p. 1047. There were as well 43 strikes that took place in the handicraft and transport industries (including coolies).
78. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 332, 369 and 377-379; Zhao Qin, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", pp. 1049-50.
79. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 332, 369 and 377-379; Zhao Qin, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", pp. 1049-50.
80. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 346-347.
81. Ibid., volume I, pp. 334-336; North-China Herald, July 1882.
82. Ibid., volume I, pp. 334-336; North-China Herald, July 1882.
83. Ibid., volume I, pp. 336-337; North-China Herald, 12 January 1872.
84. Ibid., volume I, pp. 336-337; North-China Herald, 12 January 1872.
85. Ibid., volume I, p. 337. No further details are available as to the settlement of the dispute.
86. Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye", p. 316.
87. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 337; Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye", p. 318; North-China Herald, 5 September 1890. According to Zhao Qin, there was also a strike in 1883 over an attempt to increase the workday to nine hours. If so, the workers must have been successful at the time. However, it would appear that the 1883 strike was about something else (see above). Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", p. 1048.
88. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 337; Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye", p. 318; North-China Herald, 5 September 1890. According to Zhao Qin, there was also a strike in 1883 over an attempt to increase the workday to nine hours. If so, the workers must have been successful at the time. However, it would appear that the 1883 strike was about something else (see above). Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", p. 1048.
89. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 337; Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye", p. 318; North-China Herald, 5 September 1890. According to Zhao Qin, there was also a strike in 1883 over an attempt to increase the workday to nine hours. If so, the workers must have been successful at the time. However, it would appear that the 1883 strike was about something else (see above). Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", p. 1048.
90. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, p. 337; Jiang, "Lun Qing-chao guanban jindai junshi gonye", p. 318; North-China Herald, 5 September 1890. According to Zhao Qin, there was also a strike in 1883 over an attempt to increase the workday to nine hours. If so, the workers must have been successful at the time. However, it would appear that the 1883 strike was about something else (see above). Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", p. 1048.
91. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 338.
92. Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", pp. 1047-48; North-China Herald, 21 July 1882.
93. Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", pp. 1047-48; North-China Herald, 21 July 1882.
94. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 376-377.
95. Ibid., volume I, pp. 377-378.
96. Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", p. 1048; Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 163-164.
97. Zhao, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Zhongguo gongren yundong", p. 1048; Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 163-164.
98. Liu and Tang, Zhongguo gongren, volume I, pp. 377-378.
99. Ibid., volume I, p. 378.
100. Ibid., volume I, pp. 184 and 378.
101. Ibid., volume I, p. 377.
102. Ibid., volume I, p. 378.
103. Prosper Marie Giquel (H. Lang trans.), The Foochow Arsenal and Its Results. From the Commencement in 1867, to the end of the Foreign Directorate, on 16 February 1874 (Shanghai: 1874), p. 15.
104. North-China Herald, 15 September 1870. See also David Pong, "Western Technicians and Technical Aid in China's Early Developmental Experience: The Foochow Navy Yard, 1866-1875", Papers on Far Eastern History, 20 (September 1979), pp. 83-104.
105. North-China Herald, 15 September 1870. See also David Pong, "Western Technicians and Technical Aid in China's Early Developmental Experience: The Foochow Navy Yard, 1866-1875", Papers on Far Eastern History, 20 (September 1979), pp. 83-104.
106. See for example the students' letter of thanks to James Carroll of the School of Navigation at the Fuzhou Navy Yard, July 1871, in Shore, The Flight of the Lapwing, pp. 230-232.