Personnel discipline and industrial relations on the Railways of Republican China

Australian Journal of Politics and History

Volumn 47, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 24-38

  Morgan, Stephen L ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035578865     PISSN: 00049522     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8497.00217     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. The historical role of the railway in the evolution of the modern business organisation is set out in Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977).
2. Yan Zhongpin, Zhongguo jindai jingji tongji ziliao xuanji (Selected statistical materials on China's modern economy) (Beijing: Kexue, 1955), p. 180, and Mi Rucheng, Diguozhuyi yu Zhongguo tielu, 1847-1949 (Imperialism and Chinese Railways, 1847-1911) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin, 1980), pp. 543-45 and 670.
3. Yan Zhongpin, Zhongguo jindai jingji tongji ziliao xuanji (Selected statistical materials on China's modern economy) (Beijing: Kexue, 1955), p. 180, and Mi Rucheng, Diguozhuyi yu Zhongguo tielu, 1847-1949 (Imperialism and Chinese Railways, 1847-1911) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin, 1980), pp. 543-45 and 670.
4. For more detail see Stephen L. Morgan, "Chinese Railway Lives, 1912-1937", unpublished PhD dissertation (Australian National University, 1995), pp. 12 and 49-53. China Proper refers to the core 18 provinces south of the Great Wall during the Republican period. Northeast China (or Manchuria) became the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo after the 18 September Incident of 1931, though Japan had progressively established political and economic hegemony over Manchuria following its victory in the 1904 Russo-Japanese War.
5. Women were statistically few. In 1933 there were eight women seamstresses, only 0.0001 per cent of the permanent manual grade workforce of the CNR. See Ministry of Railways, Guoyou tielu laogong tongji, di-yi-zhong (State railways labour statistic, first series) (Nanjing: Tiedaobu, 1934), below abbreviated Guoyou tielu-1. The CNR personnel records at the No 2 or Second Historical Archives (abbreviated below as SHA) in Nanjing show a few women were employed in medical services, office work and domestic-type duties.
6. Railway and postal workers averaged $25 a month in 1927, second only to mechanics and electricians on $30, while women textile hands earned $6-12 a month. See Jean Chesneaux (H.M. Wright trans.), The Chinese Labor Movement, 1919-1927 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), pp. 95-97.
7. Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 4-5, writes that "the railroads did not provide a new kind of employment, [but] ... offered a new type of work experience" in enterprises "vastly different" in size, complexity and management. The early railway workers were recruited "from occupations where skills were roughly analogous and transferable": workshop artisans from the iron, machine and building trades; conductors from stagecoach drivers, steamship stewards and mail boat captains; station masters from commerce and commission agencies; clerks from government offices (p. 37). "For each grade of service there were sources of supply to be drawn on. Skills from existing pursuits could be transferred and adapted to the need of railway operations" (p. 43).
8. Jiaohe provided many recruits for the early Tianjin metal and machine industries. See Gail Hershatter, "Flying Hammers, Walking Chisels: The Workers of Santiaoshi." Modern China 9, 4 (October 1983), pp. 387-419, and The Workers of Tianjin, 1900-1949 (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1986), pp. 84-85 and 98-100. Jiaohe also supplied twelve foundry molders (fanshajiang) at the Qingdao-Jinan Railway Sifang Works in 1934. See SHA 687/30 "Sifang jichang renyuan tongjibiao, 1934-35" (Employee statistics for the Sifang Works, 1934-35), discussed in Morgan, "Chinese Railway Lives", pp. 76-77 and 97.
9. Jiaohe provided many recruits for the early Tianjin metal and machine industries. See Gail Hershatter, "Flying Hammers, Walking Chisels: The Workers of Santiaoshi." Modern China 9, 4 (October 1983), pp. 387-419, and The Workers of Tianjin, 1900-1949 (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1986), pp. 84-85 and 98-100. Jiaohe also supplied twelve foundry molders (fanshajiang) at the Qingdao-Jinan Railway Sifang Works in 1934. See SHA 687/30 "Sifang jichang renyuan tongjibiao, 1934-35" (Employee statistics for the Sifang Works, 1934-35), discussed in Morgan, "Chinese Railway Lives", pp. 76-77 and 97.
10. Albert Feuerwerker earmarked the topic for research in his forward to the Ping-kuen Yu (comp.), History of Communications: A Grand Table of Contents (Washington, DC: Center for Chinese Research Materials, Association of Research Libraries, 1970).
11. The classic account is Albert Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916) and Mandarin Enterprise (New York: Atheneum, 1970 [1958]).
12. Ministry of Communications (Guan Genglin [Kuan Keng-lin] and Zeng Kunhua [Tseng K'un-hua] comps), Jiaotongshi (History of Communications) (Nanjing: Ministry of Communications, 1930-1935), 37 volumes.
13. Cited in the "Introductory Note" of Yu, History of Communications, n.p.
14. See Cheng Lin, The Chinese Railways Past and Present (Shanghai: China United Press, 1937), pp. 139-53, and The Chinese Yearbook 1935-36 (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1936) pp. 611-22.
15. See Cheng Lin, The Chinese Railways Past and Present (Shanghai: China United Press, 1937), pp. 139-53, and The Chinese Yearbook 1935-36 (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1936) pp. 611-22.
16. For example, "Ministry of Communications administrative system" (jiaotongbu guanzhi), 1912; "General rules for the organisation of state railway bureaux" (guoyou tieluju bianzhi tongzi), 1916; "Zhuzhou-Pingxiang Railway Administration organisational charter" (Zhu-Ping tielu guanliju bianzhi zhuanzhang), 1917; "The civil railway law" (minye tielu fa), 1915; "Provisional regulations for special railways" (zhuanyong tielu zanxing guize), 1915, in Ministry of Communications, Jiaotongbu fagui huibian (Compilation of laws and regulations of the Ministry of Communications) (Beijing: Jiaotongbu, 1920), pp. 1-3, 175-78, 201-02, 373-87 and 389-91; "The Railway Law" (tiedao fa), 1932, Ministry of Railways, Tiedao fagui huibian (Compilation of railway laws and regulations), (Nanjing: Tiedaobu, 1933), faling (decrees) pp. 23-25.
17. Between 1928 and 1949, Beijing was known as Beiping after the Guomindang (Nationalist) Party established the Nationalist Government capital at Nanjing. I use Beijing or Beiping in the text based upon the period when I first mention a particular railway, and thereafter use the abbreviation, which is the same irrespective of period. The railway administrations discussed are the Beiping-Hankou Railway (BHR), Beiping-Liaoning Railway (BLR), Beiping-Suiyuan Railway (BSR), Tianjin-Pukou Railway (TPR), Nanjing-Shanghai-Hangzhou Railway (NSHR), Qingdao-Jinan Railway (QJR) and Zhengding-Taiyuan Railway (ZTR). These employed 80 per cent of the CNR workforce in the 1930s.
18. The Tiedao fagui huibian (1933) volume contained 13 classifications for laws and regulations: decrees (faling), organisation (zuzhi), personnel (renshi), business (yewu), finance (caiwu), accounts (kuaiji), statistics (tongji), engineering (gongwu), materials (cailiao), police (lujing), education (jiaoyu), permanent way (daolu), and miscellaneous (zalu).
19. Ministry of Railways, Tiedao gongbao (Railway gazette) (Nanjing), December 1928, number 1, to May 1937, number 1785, carried administrative decisions, minutes of meetings, laws and regulations pertaining to the railways, and investigation reports.
20. The most complete collections of regulations are the Jiaotongbu fagui and Tiedao fagui volumes cited above. For selected regulations, see Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren jieji lishi zhuangkuang, 1840-1949 (The historical condition of the Chinese working class, 1840-1949), 1 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao, 1985), and Yang Wenfu ed., Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao xuanbian (Selected materials on the history of the Chinese railway workers movement) (Zhengzhou: Zhonghua quanguo tielu zonggonghui, 1990).
21. The most complete collections of regulations are the Jiaotongbu fagui and Tiedao fagui volumes cited above. For selected regulations, see Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren jieji lishi zhuangkuang, 1840-1949 (The historical condition of the Chinese working class, 1840-1949), 1 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao, 1985), and Yang Wenfu ed., Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao xuanbian (Selected materials on the history of the Chinese railway workers movement) (Zhengzhou: Zhonghua quanguo tielu zonggonghui, 1990).
22. For example, the TPR in 1926 paid the Dezhou section assistant engineer (bang gongchengsi) a monthly salary (yuexin) of $130 and general allowance (jintie) of $60; a clerk (sishi) was paid a salary of $50, and general and rent allowances of $5 each; while a supervisor (jiangong) was paid a salary of $50 and a general allowance of $5. See SHA 538/2506/070, December 1926, "Xizimachang zhi Jinan yuansi xingming xintie ce" (Register of the name, salary and allowance for staff officers of the Xizimachang to Jinan [sub-section]). On NSHR c.1930 a housing allowance was paid to staff on more than $35 a month. See Shanghai tielu gongren yundong shi (A history of the Shanghai railway workers' movement) (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi, 1991), p. 21.
23. The Nanjing Government required officers to swear an oath to remain free of corrupt and fraudulent practices, and to obey directives of the Guomindang. See "Sworn oath ordinance" (xuanshi tiaoli); "Law governing the discipline of public officials" (gongwuyuan chengjie fa); "Regulations governing the punishment of Ministry of Railways officers who divulge secrets" (Tiedaobu zhiyuan xielou chengjie guize), Tiedao fagui huibian, renshi (personnel), pp. 13-15, 45-50 and 68-70.
24. Ministry of Railways, Tiedao nianjian 1932 (Railway Yearbook 1932) (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1933), p. 146. For the similar 1918 scale, see Jiaotongbu fagui huibian, pp. 292-96.
25. Ministry of Railways, Tiedao nianjian 1932 (Railway Yearbook 1932) (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1933), p. 146. For the similar 1918 scale, see Jiaotongbu fagui huibian, pp. 292-96.
26. Xu Xiehua, Tielu laogong wenti (The Railway Labour Problem), (Beiping: Dongfang shuju, 1931), n.p., Table 21.
27. Space does not permit a detailed discussion of training and promotion on the CNR, though the advancement prospects were a key element of the discipline regime. Traffic, permanent way and general affairs employees' skills were soon learned on the job and often jobs were interchangeable. The semiskilled classification recognised experience, an acquired minimum capability and a degree of reliability. Skilled workers were trained in apprenticeships, as in the workshops, or through "following up" (learning by doing) used for engine drivers. Skill is a problematic and contested concept, though, a product as much of workplace politics and culture as of ability and knowledge ("genuine skill") acquired through training. The social construction of skill is discussed by Paul Thompson, "Playing at being skilled: Factory culture and pride in work skills among Coventry car workers", Social History, 13, 1 (January 1988), pp. 45-69, and Charles More, Skill and the English Working Class, 1870-1914 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1980).
28. Space does not permit a detailed discussion of training and promotion on the CNR, though the advancement prospects were a key element of the discipline regime. Traffic, permanent way and general affairs employees' skills were soon learned on the job and often jobs were interchangeable. The semiskilled classification recognised experience, an acquired minimum capability and a degree of reliability. Skilled workers were trained in apprenticeships, as in the workshops, or through "following up" (learning by doing) used for engine drivers. Skill is a problematic and contested concept, though, a product as much of workplace politics and culture as of ability and knowledge ("genuine skill") acquired through training. The social construction of skill is discussed by Paul Thompson, "Playing at being skilled: Factory culture and pride in work skills among Coventry car workers", Social History, 13, 1 (January 1988), pp. 45-69, and Charles More, Skill and the English Working Class, 1870-1914 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1980).
29. Guoyou tielu-1, pp. 30-32, 41-45, 56-61.
30. These general observations are based on extensive consultation of the personnel records for various CNR lines, in particular the BLR, BHR, TPR and the NSHR held at the SHA. The series [quanzonghao] consulted were 138, 215, 443, 539, 673, 685, 686, 687, 691, and 693.
31. See Jeffrey Haydu, Between Craft and Class: Skilled Work and Factory Politics in the United States and Britain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988),
32. Craig R. Littler, The Development of the Labour Process in Capitalist Societies: A Comparative Study of the Transformation of Work Organization in Britain, Japan and the USA (London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1982),
33. and More, Skill and the English Working Class.
34. See accounts of protests in Baofengyuzhong de huochetou: Qinshuyan jiche cheliang gongchang gongren douzhengshi, 1898-1949 (Locomotives in tempest: the history of the workers' struggles at the Qinshuyan locomotive and rolling stock plant, 1898-1949) (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin, 1962), pp. 10, 29-33; "Tangshan laodong zhuang-kuang, er" (Tangshan labour conditions, 2), Xin Qingnian (New Youth), 7, 6 (May 1920).
35. F.W. Taylor, who promoted scientific management (Taylorism) sought to destroy the links between the foremen or the subcontracting tradesmen and their subordinate workers in the internal contract system as a means to increase managerial control over the labour process, especially skilled work, and raise output. See Craig R. Littler, "Understanding Taylorism", British Journal of Sociology, XXIX, 2 (June 1978), pp. 187-202; and the account of the initiatives at the Wusong Works in Baofengyuzhong de huochetou, pp. 35-38.
36. F.W. Taylor, who promoted scientific management (Taylorism) sought to destroy the links between the foremen or the subcontracting tradesmen and their subordinate workers in the internal contract system as a means to increase managerial control over the labour process, especially skilled work, and raise output. See Craig R. Littler, "Understanding Taylorism", British Journal of Sociology, XXIX, 2 (June 1978), pp. 187-202; and the account of the initiatives at the Wusong Works in Baofengyuzhong de huochetou, pp. 35-38.
37. See the survey reports reproduced in Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren, pp. 263-66.
38. See for example, "Rules and regulations for the management of the Beijing-Hankou Railway electrical plant" (Jing-Han tielu dianwu gongchang guanli zhangcheng), clause 9, in Yang Wenfu, Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao, p 64.
39. "Draft general regulations for the manual grades of the state-owned railways" (Guoyou tielu zhigong tongze cao'an), 1925, clause 11, in Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren, p. 718.
40. "Tielu zhigong jiaoyu weiyuanhui baogao" (Railway education committee report), 1925, in ibid, p. 265.
41. "Tangshan laodong zhuangkuang, yi" (Tangshan labour conditions, 1), "Tangshan laodong zhuang-kuang, er" (Tangshan labour conditions, 2), Xin Qingnian (New Youth), 7, 6 (May 1920).
42. Shang Bao, Shanghai, 17 January 1927, cited in Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren, pp. 274-75.
43. "Each month a minimum of two days must be provided, and an alternate day allowed if work cannot be interrupted or left unfinished", stated the "Draft general regulations", 1925, Clause 12, in Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren, p. 718. "All workers every dalibai will rest one day", Clause 12, "Rules ... Beijing-Hankou Railway electrical plant", in Yang Wenfu, Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao, p. 63.
44. "Each month a minimum of two days must be provided, and an alternate day allowed if work cannot be interrupted or left unfinished", stated the "Draft general regulations", 1925, Clause 12, in Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren, p. 718. "All workers every dalibai will rest one day", Clause 12, "Rules ... Beijing-Hankou Railway electrical plant", in Yang Wenfu, Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao, p. 63.
45. Ibid; also, "Draft general regulations", 1925, Clause 13, in Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren, p. 718.
46. Ibid; also, "Draft general regulations", 1925, Clause 13, in Liu Mingkui, Zhongguo gongren, p. 718.
47. "Tangshan laodong zhuangkuang, yi".
48. See Tiedaofagui huibian, renshi (personnel), pp. 93-102, "Railway employees service ordinance" (tielu yuangong fuwu tiaoli). Although the ordinance formally provided for better conditions, its regulations imposed less than liberal rules on the rights of association, industrial action, and collective bargaining. The discipline processes of the ordinance are discussed below.
49. Ibid, pp. 94, clause 9 (wages), clause 10 (overtime).
50. Ibid, pp. 95, 96-97, clause 13-15 (age limits, youth workers, and apprentices), clauses 21-23 (apprentice pay, trainee stipends, annual and good service bonus payments).
51. As Michel Foucault noted: "At the heart of all disciplinary systems functions a small penal mechanism. ... The workshop, the school, the army were subject to a whole micropenality of time (lateness, absences, interruptions of tasks), of activity (inattention, negligence, lack of zeal), of behaviour (impoliteness, disobedience), of speech (idle chatter, insolence), of the body ('incorrect' attitudes, irregular gestures, lack of cleanliness), of sexuality (impurity, indecency)"; Paul Rabinow ed, The Foucault Reader (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 193-94.
52. Licht, Working for the Railroad, chapter three; Peter Kingsford, Victorian Railwaymen: The Emergence and Growth of Railway Labour, 1830-1870 (London: Cass, 1970), chapter two; James H. Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), chapter two. On industrial discipline in general, see Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London: Edward Arnold, 1965), especially pp. 181-92 passim.
53. Licht, Working for the Railroad, chapter three; Peter Kingsford, Victorian Railwaymen: The Emergence and Growth of Railway Labour, 1830-1870 (London: Cass, 1970), chapter two; James H. Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), chapter two. On industrial discipline in general, see Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London: Edward Arnold, 1965), especially pp. 181-92 passim.
54. Licht, Working for the Railroad, chapter three; Peter Kingsford, Victorian Railwaymen: The Emergence and Growth of Railway Labour, 1830-1870 (London: Cass, 1970), chapter two; James H. Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), chapter two. On industrial discipline in general, see Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London: Edward Arnold, 1965), especially pp. 181-92 passim.
55. Licht, Working for the Railroad, chapter three; Peter Kingsford, Victorian Railwaymen: The Emergence and Growth of Railway Labour, 1830-1870 (London: Cass, 1970), chapter two; James H. Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), chapter two. On industrial discipline in general, see Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London: Edward Arnold, 1965), especially pp. 181-92 passim.
56. "Jing-Han lu zhengli luwu tiaochen - guanyu chengfa de ba zhong chabie" (Beijing-Hankou line reorganisation of railway service regulations - on eight types of punishments), in Yang Wenfu, Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao, p. 59
57. Kingsford, Victorian Railwaymen, pp. 13-14, 22-25; Licht, Working for the Railroad, pp. 118-120.
58. Kingsford, Victorian Railwaymen, pp. 13-14, 22-25; Licht, Working for the Railroad, pp. 118-120.
59. Devised in the 1890s by George R. Brown, superintendent of the Falls Brook Railway, New York, the system provided summary discharge for major offences and suspension, demotion, and reprimand or demerit points for other offences. This grade discipline system was adopted by American and railways. Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails, pp. 38-42.
60. "Rules and regulations for the punishment of manual grades of the Beijing-Hankou Railway" (Jing-Han tielu zhigong chengjie zhangcheng), Jiaotong gongbao (Communications Gazette), 404 (21 November 1923), in Yang Wenfu, Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao, pp. 59-61.
61. Across the CNR 82 per cent of the manual grades earned between 21 cents and $1 a day in 1934. See Ministry of Railways, Guoyou tielu laogong tongji, di-er-zhong (State railways labour statistics, second series) (Nanjing: Tiedaobu, 1935), p. 5, hereafter abbreviated Guoyou tielu-2. Senior supervisory grades could earn more than $90 a month, such as a NSHR chief driver whose top daily rate was $4.30. See Guoyou tielu-1, pp. 16-17.
62. Across the CNR 82 per cent of the manual grades earned between 21 cents and $1 a day in 1934. See Ministry of Railways, Guoyou tielu laogong tongji, di-er-zhong (State railways labour statistics, second series) (Nanjing: Tiedaobu, 1935), p. 5, hereafter abbreviated Guoyou tielu-2. Senior supervisory grades could earn more than $90 a month, such as a NSHR chief driver whose top daily rate was $4.30. See Guoyou tielu-1, pp. 16-17.
63. Chinese railways most years paid a year-end bonus of one to two months' wages. It was also paid to employees who resigned provided they had worked more than six months of the year without discipline infringement, or to the dependants of a worker who had died in service and who had fulfilled the conditions. See Liu Xinquan, "Huabei tielu gongren gongzi tongji" (Wages of railway workers in North China), Shehui kexue zazhi (Quarterly Review of Social Sciences), 4, 3 (September 1933), p. 338, and SHA 215/2080. "Lizhi yuangong qing ling jiangjin qingqiushu" (Petitions requesting the bonus from employees leaving the railway service), January-August 1934.
64. Yang Wenfu, Zhongguo tielu gongyunshi ziliao, pp. 59-61.
65. "Railway employees service ordinance" (tielu yuangong fuwu tiaoli), in Tiedao fagui huibian, renshi (personnel), pp. 93-102.
66. For an overview of trends, see Lloyd E. Eastman, The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 1927-1937 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
67. See Tiedaofagui huibian, renshi (personnel), pp. 98-99, clause 30 and 31.
68. Ibid, p. 99, clause 32.
69. Ibid, pp. 99-100, clause 33 and 34.
70. Ibid, p. 97, clause 24.
71. Ibid, clause 27.
72. Ibid, clause 28.
73. Ibid, clause 29.
74. Liu, "Huabei tielu gongren gongzi tongji", p. 323.
75. SHA 215/552. "Lieche chahuo dupin" (Train seizures of narcotics), BLR Police, correspondence no. 76, 23 January 1933.
76. Guoyou tielu-2, pp. 10, 26, 33, 40, 47, 82.
77. This does not discount the possibility that the earlier practice of arbitrary fines continued, which went unreported. In the 1920s, BHR foremen and supervisors frequently imposed and pocketed fines. See accounts in Beifang de hongxing - Changxindian jiche cheliang gongchang liushi nian (Red star of the north - Sixty years of the Changxindian locomotive and rolling stock plant) (Beijing: Zuojia, 1960), pp. 20-22.
78. See Tiedaofagui huibian, renshi (personnel), pp. 97, clause 26.
79. Ibid, p. 96, clause 19. The detailed compensation schedule is set out in a supplementary regulation, "Guoyou tielu yuangong fuxu tongze" (National railways employees compensation general regulations), ibid., pp. 105-21.
80. Ibid, p. 96, clause 19. The detailed compensation schedule is set out in a supplementary regulation, "Guoyou tielu yuangong fuxu tongze" (National railways employees compensation general regulations), ibid., pp. 105-21.
81. The health of workers and their families were looked after by the well-organised medical system. The BHR's hygiene section (weishengke) ran eight general hospitals, two special hospitals and two medical clinics, while the BLR ran 11 medical facilities. See Tiedao nianjian (Railway Yearbook), 3 (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1936), pp. 1100-1101 and 1104-1107.
82. The wage, pension and compensation records of the BLR, BHR, TPR and NSHR were the documentary foundation of my Phd dissertation. See Morgan, "Chinese Railway Lives".
83. SHA 215/1726. Application for compensation by the wife of Liu Fengyou.
84. Ibid., application for compensation by the wife of Wu Enzhao.
85. Ibid., application for compensation by the father of Yang Shichun.
86. SHA 215/2096. "Fengtai Yingkou deng di tuizhi yuangong qing ling xujin yanglaojin" (Requests for compensation and pensions from retired workers at Fengtai, Yingkou and other places). Department, determination no. 1528, 1933.
87. SHA 215/2094. "Shanhaiguan qu tuizhi yuangong qing fa yanglaojin deng" (Requests from retired workers in the Shanhaiguan district for the issue of pensions, etc), 1932-34.
88. Gan Xulan, "Jing-Sui lu zaoqi gongren yundong shishi zhaji" (Notes on the historical facts of the early workers movement on the Beijing-Suiyuan line), in Nei Menggu daxue xuebao (Journal of the University of Inner Mongolia), 1 (1984), p. 37-49.
89. Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails, p. 51.