A Study of East African Kinship and Marriage Using a Phylogenetically Based Comparative Method

American Anthropologist

Volumn 103, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 1059-1082

  Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff ^a   George Cramer, Margaret ^b   Eshleman, Jason ^a   Ortolani, Alessia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Comparative method; East Africa; Kinship; Marriage; Phylogenetic method

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035567830     PISSN: 00027294     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.1059     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Aberle, D. F. 1984 The Language Family as a Field for Historical Reconstruction. Journal of Anthropological Research 40:129-136. 1987 Distinguished Lecture: What Kind of Science Is Anthropology? American Anthropologist 89:551-566.
2. Aberle, D. F. 1984 The Language Family as a Field for Historical Reconstruction. Journal of Anthropological Research 40:129-136. 1987 Distinguished Lecture: What Kind of Science Is Anthropology? American Anthropologist 89:551-566.
3. Abouheif, E. 1999 A Method for Testing the Assumption of Phylogenetic Independence in Comparative Data. Evolutionary Ecology Research 1(8):895-909.
4. Aickin, M., and H. Gensler 1996 Adjusting for Multiple Testing When Reporting Research Results: The Bonferroni vs. Holm Methods. American Journal of Public Health 86:726-728.
5. Barnes, J. A. 1971 Three Styles in the Study of Kinship. Berkeley: University of California Press.
6. Bellwood, P. 1996 Phylogeny vs. Reticulation in Prehistory. Antiquity 70(270):881-890.
7. Bledsoe, C. H. 1980 Women and Marriage in Kpelle Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
8. Blute, M. 1997 History versus Science: The Evolutionary Solution. Canadian Journal of Sociology 22(3):345-364.
9. Boas, F. 1940 Race, Language and Culture. New York: The Macmillan Co.
10. Borgerhoff Mulder, M. 1992 Women's Strategies in Polygynous Marriage. Human Nature 3:45-70. 2001 Using Phylogenetically Based Comparative Methods in Anthropology: More Questions than Answers. Evolutionary Anthropology 10:99-111.
11. Borgerhoff Mulder, M. 1992 Women's Strategies in Polygynous Marriage. Human Nature 3:45-70. 2001 Using Phylogenetically Based Comparative Methods in Anthropology: More Questions than Answers. Evolutionary Anthropology 10:99-111.
12. Borgerhoff Mulder, M., P. J. Richerson, N. W. Thornhill, and E. Voland 1997 The Place of Behavioral Ecology in Evolutionary Social Science. In Human by Nature: Between Biology and the Social Sciences. P. Weingart, S.D. Mitchell, P. J. Richerson, and S. Maasen, eds. Pp. 253-282. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
13. Boyd, R., M. Mulder Borgerhoff, W. H. Durham, and P. J. Richerson 1997 Are Cultural Phylogenies Possible? In Human by Nature: Between Biology and the Social Sciences. P. Weingart, S. D. Mitchell, P. J. Richerson, and S. Maasen, eds. Pp. 355-386. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
14. Boyd, R., and P. J. Richerson 1985 Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
15. Burton, M. L., and D. R White 1987 Cross-Cultural Surveys Today. Annual Reviews in Anthropology 16:143-160.
16. Carneiro, R. L. 1970 A Theory of the Origin of the State. Science 169:733-738.
17. Cashdan, E., and A. R. Rogers 1997 Review of Human Nature: A Critical Reader. Evolution and Human Behavior 18:279-283.
18. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza 1994 The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
19. Cheverud, J, M., and M. M. Dow 1985 An Autocorrelational Analysis of Genetic Variation due to Lineal Fission in Social Groups of Rhesus Macaques. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 67:113-121.
20. Cheverud, J. M., M. M. Dow, and W. Leutenegger 1985 The Quantitative Assessment of Phylogenetic Constraints in Comparative Analyses: Sexual Dimorphism in Body Weight among Primates. Evolution 39(6):1335-1351.
21. Cowlishaw, G., and R. Mace 1996 Cross-Cultural Patterns of Marriage and Inheritance: A Phylogenetic Approach. Ethnology and Sociobiology 17:87-97.
22. Cunnison, I. G. 1966 Baggara Arabs: Power and Lineage in a Sudanese Nomad Tribe. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
23. Davison, J. 1988 Land and Women's Agricultural Production: The Context. In Agriculture, Women and Land. J. Davis, ed. Pp. 1-32. Boulder: Westview Press.
24. Dow, M. M. 1991 Statistical Inference in Comparative Research: New Directions. Behavior Science Research 25:235-257. 1993 Saving the Theory: On Chi-Square Tests with Cross-Cultural Survey Data. Cross-Cultural Research 27:247-276.
25. Dow, M. M. 1991 Statistical Inference in Comparative Research: New Directions. Behavior Science Research 25:235-257. 1993 Saving the Theory: On Chi-Square Tests with Cross-Cultural Survey Data. Cross-Cultural Research 27:247-276.
26. Dow, M. M., M. L. Burton, D. R. White, and K. P. Reitz 1984 Galton's Problem as Network Autocorrelation. American Ethnologist 11:754-710.
27. Durham, W. H. 1990 Advances in Evolutionary Culture Theory. Annual Review of Anthropology 19:187-210. 1991 Coevolution: Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1992 Applications of Evolutionary Culture Theory. Annual Review of Anthropology 21:331-355.
28. Durham, W. H. 1990 Advances in Evolutionary Culture Theory. Annual Review of Anthropology 19:187-210. 1991 Coevolution: Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1992 Applications of Evolutionary Culture Theory. Annual Review of Anthropology 21:331-355.
29. Durham, W. H. 1990 Advances in Evolutionary Culture Theory. Annual Review of Anthropology 19:187-210. 1991 Coevolution: Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1992 Applications of Evolutionary Culture Theory. Annual Review of Anthropology 21:331-355.
30. Edwards, S. V., and M. Kot 1995 Comparative Methods at the Species Level: Geographic Variation in Morphology and Group Size in Grey-Crowned Babblers (Pomatostomus Temporalis). Evolution 49(6):1134-1146.
31. Eggan, F. 1975 Social Anthropology and the Method of Controlled Comparison. In Essays in Social Anthropology and Ethnology. F. Eggan, ed. Pp. 191-217. Chicago: Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.
32. Ehret, C. 1971 Southern Nilotic History: Linguistic Approaches to the Study of the Past. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. 1998 An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400. Oxford: J. Currey.
33. Ehret, C. 1971 Southern Nilotic History: Linguistic Approaches to the Study of the Past. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. 1998 An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400. Oxford: J. Currey.
34. Ember, C. R., and M. Ember 1996 Comparing Cultures: What Have We Learned from Cross-Cultural Research? Bulletin of the Council for General Anthropology 2(2):1-7.
35. Ember, M., and C. R. Ember 1971 The Conditions Favoring Matrilocal versus Patrilocal Residence. American Anthropologist 73:571-594.
36. Eshleman, J., J. Greenberg, A. Ortolani, M. George-Cramer, and M. Borgerhoff Mulder 1998 Phylogenetically Controlled Comparisons in Anthropology: A Study of African Lineage Systems. Poster presented at Hbes 98, Tenth Annual Meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, Davis, CA, July 8-12.
37. Fallers, L. A. 1957 Some Determinants of Marriage Stability in Busoga: A Reformulation of Gluckman's Hypothesis. Africa 27:106-123.
38. Fardon, R. 1999 Mary Douglas: An Intellectual Biography. London: Routledge.
39. Felsenstein, J. 1985 Phytogenies and the Comparative Method. American Naturalist 125:1-15.
40. Gaulin, S. J. C., and J. Boster 1990 Dowry as Female Competition. American Anthropologist 92:994-1005.
41. Gittleman, J. L., and M. Kot 1990 Adaptation Statistics and a Null Model for Estimating Phylogenetic Effects. Systematic Zoology 39(3):227-241.
42. Glickman, M. 1974 Patriliny among the Gusii and the Luo of Kenya. American Anthropologist 76:312-318.
43. Gluckman, M. 1950 Kinship and Marriage among the Lozi of Northern Rhodesia and the Zulu of Natal. In African Systems of Kinship and Marriage. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown and D. Forde, eds. Pp. 166-206. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
44. Goldschmidt, W. 1974 The Economics of Brideprice among the Sebei and in East Africa. Ethnology 13:311-331.
45. Grafen, A. 1989 The Phylogenetic Regression. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 326:119-157.
46. Gray, R. F., and P. H. Gulliver, eds. 1964 The Family Estate in Africa. Boston: Boston University Press.
47. Gray, R. F., and F. M. Jordan 2000 Language Trees Support the Express-Train Sequence of Austronesian Expansion. Nature (London) 405(6790):1052-1055.
48. Guglielmino, C. R., C. Viganotti, B. Hewlett, and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza 1995 Cultural Variation in Africa: Role of Mechanisms of Transmission and Adaptation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 92:7585-7589.
49. Gulliver, P. H. 1955 The Family Herds. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1963 Social Control in an African Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
50. Gulliver, P. H. 1955 The Family Herds. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1963 Social Control in an African Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
51. Haddix, K. 2001 When Polyandry Falls Apart: Leaving Your Wife and Your Brothers. Evolution and Human Behavior 22(1):47-60.
52. Håkansson, T. 1985 Why DoGusii Women Get Married? Folk 27:89-114. 1989 Family Structure, Bridewealth, and Environment in Eastern Africa: A Comparative Study of House-Property Systems. Ethnology 28:117-134. 1990 Descent, Bridewealth, and Terms of Alliance in East African Societies. Research in Economic Anthropology 12:149-173. 1994 The Detachability of Women: Gender and Kinship in Processes of Socioeconomic Change among the Gusi of Kenya. American Ethnologist 21(3):516-538.
53. Håkansson, T. 1985 Why DoGusii Women Get Married? Folk 27:89-114. 1989 Family Structure, Bridewealth, and Environment in Eastern Africa: A Comparative Study of House-Property Systems. Ethnology 28:117-134. 1990 Descent, Bridewealth, and Terms of Alliance in East African Societies. Research in Economic Anthropology 12:149-173. 1994 The Detachability of Women: Gender and Kinship in Processes of Socioeconomic Change among the Gusi of Kenya. American Ethnologist 21(3):516-538.
54. Håkansson, T. 1985 Why DoGusii Women Get Married? Folk 27:89-114. 1989 Family Structure, Bridewealth, and Environment in Eastern Africa: A Comparative Study of House-Property Systems. Ethnology 28:117-134. 1990 Descent, Bridewealth, and Terms of Alliance in East African Societies. Research in Economic Anthropology 12:149-173. 1994 The Detachability of Women: Gender and Kinship in Processes of Socioeconomic Change among the Gusi of Kenya. American Ethnologist 21(3):516-538.
55. Håkansson, T. 1985 Why DoGusii Women Get Married? Folk 27:89-114. 1989 Family Structure, Bridewealth, and Environment in Eastern Africa: A Comparative Study of House-Property Systems. Ethnology 28:117-134. 1990 Descent, Bridewealth, and Terms of Alliance in East African Societies. Research in Economic Anthropology 12:149-173. 1994 The Detachability of Women: Gender and Kinship in Processes of Socioeconomic Change among the Gusi of Kenya. American Ethnologist 21(3):516-538.
56. Hansen, T. F. 1997 Stabilizing Selection and the Comparative Analysis of Adaptation. Evolution 51(5):1341-1351.
57. Harrell, S. 1997 Human Families. Boulder: Westview Press.
58. Hartung, J. 1982 Polygyny and the Inheritance of Wealth. Current Anthropology 23:1-12. 1997 If I Had to Do It Over. In Human Nature: A Critical Reader. L. Betzig, ed. Pp. 344-348. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
59. Hartung, J. 1982 Polygyny and the Inheritance of Wealth. Current Anthropology 23:1-12. 1997 If I Had to Do It Over. In Human Nature: A Critical Reader. L. Betzig, ed. Pp. 344-348. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
60. Harvey, P., and M. Pagel 1991 The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
61. Hewlett, B. S., A. de Silvertri, and C. R. Guglielmino 2002 Semes and Genes in Africa. Current Anthropology 43(2).
62. Jorgensen, J. G. 1969 Salish Language and Culture, vol. 3. Bloomington: Indiana University Language Science Monographs.
63. Laland, Kevin N., J. Odling-Smee, and M. W. Feldman 2000 Niche Construction, Biological Evolution, and Cultural Change. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23(1):131-175.
64. Levine, N. E., and J. B. Silk 1997 Why Polyandry Fails - Sources of Instability in Polyandrous Marriages. Current Anthropology 38(3):375-398.
65. LeVine, R. A. 1962 Witchcraft and Co-Wife Proximity in Southwestern Kenya. Ethnology 1:39-45. 1964 The Gusii Family. In The Family Estate in Africa. R. F. Gray and P. H. Gulliver, eds. Pp. 63-82. Boston: Boston University Press. 1965 Intergenerational Tensions and Extended Family Structures in Africa. In Social Structure and the Family: Generational Relations. E. Shanas and G. F. Streib, eds. Pp. 188-204. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
66. LeVine, R. A. 1962 Witchcraft and Co-Wife Proximity in Southwestern Kenya. Ethnology 1:39-45. 1964 The Gusii Family. In The Family Estate in Africa. R. F. Gray and P. H. Gulliver, eds. Pp. 63-82. Boston: Boston University Press. 1965 Intergenerational Tensions and Extended Family Structures in Africa. In Social Structure and the Family: Generational Relations. E. Shanas and G. F. Streib, eds. Pp. 188-204. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
67. LeVine, R. A. 1962 Witchcraft and Co-Wife Proximity in Southwestern Kenya. Ethnology 1:39-45. 1964 The Gusii Family. In The Family Estate in Africa. R. F. Gray and P. H. Gulliver, eds. Pp. 63-82. Boston: Boston University Press. 1965 Intergenerational Tensions and Extended Family Structures in Africa. In Social Structure and the Family: Generational Relations. E. Shanas and G. F. Streib, eds. Pp. 188-204. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
68. Lewis, B. A. 1972 The Murle: Red Chiefs and Black Commoners. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
69. Lewis, I. M. 1961 A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. London: Oxford University Press.
70. Low, B. S. 1988 Measures of Polygyny in Humans. Current Anthropology 29(1):189-194.
71. Mace, R., and M. Pagel 1994 The Comparative Method in Anthropology. Current Anthropology 35:549-564. 1997 Tips, Nodes and Branches. In Human Nature: A Critical Reader. L. Betzig, ed. Pp. 297-310. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
72. Mace, R., and M. Pagel 1994 The Comparative Method in Anthropology. Current Anthropology 35:549-564. 1997 Tips, Nodes and Branches. In Human Nature: A Critical Reader. L. Betzig, ed. Pp. 297-310. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
73. Maddison, W. P. 1990 A Method for Testing the Correlated Evolution of 2 Binary Characters: Are Gains or Losses Concentrated on Certain Branches of a Phylogenetic Tree? Evolution 44:539-557.
74. Maddison, W. P., and D. R. Maddison 1997 MacClade: Analysis of Phytogenies and Character Evolution. Version 3.07. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
75. Martins, E. P. 1996 Phylogenies and the Comparative Method in Animal Behavior. New York: Oxford University Press. 2000 Adaptation and the Comparative Method. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15(7):296-299.
76. Martins, E. P. 1996 Phylogenies and the Comparative Method in Animal Behavior. New York: Oxford University Press. 2000 Adaptation and the Comparative Method. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15(7):296-299.
77. Martins, E. P., and T. Garland 1991 Phylogenetic Analyses of the Correlated Evolution of Continuous Characters: A Simulation Study. Evolution 45(3):534-557.
78. McElreath, R. 1997 Iterated Parsimony: A Method for Reconstructing Cultural Histories. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
79. Mitchell, J. C. 1951 The Yao of Southern Nyasaland. In Seven Tribes of British Central Africa. E. Colson and M. Gluckman, eds. Pp. 292-353. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
80. Moore, J. H. 1994 Putting Anthropology Back Together Again: The Ethnogenetic Critique of Cladistic Theory. American Anthropologist 96:925-948.
81. Murdock, G. P. 1951 British Social Anthropology. American Anthropologist 53:465-473. 1967 Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
82. Murdock, G. P. 1951 British Social Anthropology. American Anthropologist 53:465-473. 1967 Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
83. Murdock, G. P., and D. White 1969 Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. Ethnology 8:329-369.
84. Nagashima, N. 1982 Bridewealth among the Iteso of Kenya. Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies 14:14-26.
85. Naroll, R. 1970 Galton's Problem. In A Handbook of Method in Cultural Anthropology. R. Naroll and R. Cohen, eds. Pp. 974-989. New York: Columbia University Press.
86. Nettle, D. 1998 Explaining Global Patterns of Language Diversity. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 17(4):354-374.
87. Neumann, R. P. 1998 Imposing Wilderness: Struggles over Livelihood and Nature Preservation in Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press.
88. Nugent, J. B., and N. Sanchez 1999 The Local Variability of Rainfall and Tribal Institutions: The Case of Sudan. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 39(3):263-291.
89. Nunn, C., and M. Barton 2001 Comparative Methods for Studying Primate Adaptations and Allometry. Evolutionary Anthropology 10(3):81-98.
90. Nurse, D. 1998 Towards a Historical Classification of East African Bantu Languages. In Bantu Historical Linguistics: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives. J.-M. Hombert and L. M. Hyman, eds. Pp. 1-41. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
91. Nurse, D., and T. T. Spear 1985 The Swahili: Reconstructing the History and Language of an African Society, 800-1500. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
92. Obbo, C. 1976 Dominant Male Ideology and Female Options: Three African Case Studies. Africa 46:371-389.
93. Orans, M. 1975 Domesticating the Functional Dragon: An Analysis of Piddock's Potlatch. American Anthropologist 77:312-328.
94. Ortolani, A. 1999 Spots, Stripes, Tail Tips and Dark Eyes: Predicting the Function of Carnivore Colour Patterns Using the Comparative Method. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 67:433-476.
95. Ortolani, A., and T. M. Caro 1996 The Adaptive Significance of Coat Patterns in Carnivores: Phylogenetic Tests of Classic Hypotheses. In Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution, vol. 2. J. L. Gittleman, ed. Pp. 132-188. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
96. Pagel, M. D. 1994 Detecting Correlated Evolution on Phylogenies: A General Method for the Comparative Analysis of Discrete Characters. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 255:37-45.
97. Parkin, D. 1978 The Cultural Definition of Political Response. New York: Academic Press. 1980 Kind Bridewealth and Hard Cash. In The Meaning of Marriage Payments. J. Comaroff, ed. Pp. 197-220. New York: Academic Press.
98. Parkin, D. 1978 The Cultural Definition of Political Response. New York: Academic Press. 1980 Kind Bridewealth and Hard Cash. In The Meaning of Marriage Payments. J. Comaroff, ed. Pp. 197-220. New York: Academic Press.
99. Peristiany, J. G. 1939 The Social Institutions of the Kipsigis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
100. Pocklington, R. 1996 Population Genetics and Cultural History. M.S. thesis, Simon Frazer University.
101. Potash, B. 1978 Some Aspects of Marital Stability in a Rural Luo Community. Africa 48:380-397.
102. Price, T. 1997 Correlated Evolution and Independent Contrasts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B - Biological Sciences 352(1352):519-529.
103. Purvis, A., J. L. Gittleman, and H. K. Luh 1994 Truth or Consequences: Effects of Phylogenetic Accuracy on Two Comparative Methods. Journal of Theoretical Biology 167(3):293-300.
104. Radcliffe-Brown, A. R., and D. Forde, eds. 1950 African Systems of Kinship and Marriage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
105. Richards, A. J. 1950 Some Types of Family Structure among the Central Bantu. In African Systems of Kinship and Marriage. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown and D. Forde, eds. Pp. 207-251. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
106. Ridley, M. 1983 The Explanation of Organic Diversity: The Comparative Method and Adaptations for Mating. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1992 Darwin Sound on Comparative Method. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 7:17.
107. Ridley, M. 1983 The Explanation of Organic Diversity: The Comparative Method and Adaptations for Mating. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1992 Darwin Sound on Comparative Method. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 7:17.
108. Roe, F. G. 1955 The Indian and the Horse. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
109. Rogers, A. P., and E. Cashdan 1997 The Phylogenetic Approach to Comparing Human Populations. Evolution and Human Behavior 18:353-358.
110. Rogers, E. M 1995 Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press.
111. Ruhlen, M. 1991 A Guide to the World's Languages, vol. 1. Classification. London: Edward Arnold. 1994 The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. New York: Wiley.
112. Ruhlen, M. 1991 A Guide to the World's Languages, vol. 1. Classification. London: Edward Arnold. 1994 The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. New York: Wiley.
113. Sahlins, M. 1972 Stone Age Economics. Chicago: Aldine.
114. Schneider, H. K. 1964 A Model of African Indigenous Economy and Society. Comparative Studies in Society and History 7:37-55. 1979 Livestock and Equality in East Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
115. Schneider, H. K. 1964 A Model of African Indigenous Economy and Society. Comparative Studies in Society and History 7:37-55. 1979 Livestock and Equality in East Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
116. Seilen, D. W., M. Borgerhoff Mulder, and D. F. Sieff 2000 Fertility, Offspring Quality, and Wealth in Datoga Pastoralists: Testing Evolutionary Models of Intersexual Selection. In Adaptation and Human Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective. L. Cronk, N. Chagnon, and W. Irons, eds. Pp. 91-114. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
117. Seilen, D. W., and R. Mace 1999 A Phylogenetic Analysis of the Relationship between Sub-Adult Mortality and Mode of Subsistence. Journal of Biosocial Science 31:1-16.
118. Southall, A. W. 1960 On Chastity in Africa. Uganda Journal 24:207-216.
119. Spear, T. T., and R. Waller 1993 Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa. London: J. Currey.
120. Spencer, P. 1988 The Maasai of Matapato. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
121. Strassmann, B. I. 1996 Energy Economy in the Evolution of Menstruation. Evolutionary Anthropology 5:157-164.
122. Svardson, G. 1949 Competition and Habitat Selection in Birds. Oikos 1:157-174.
123. Towner, M. C. 1999 A Dynamic Model of Human Dispersal in a Land-Based Economy. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 46(2):82-94.
124. Turton, D. 1980 The Economics of Mursi Bridewealth. In The Meaning of Marriage Payments. J. Comaroff, ed. Pp. 67-92. New York: Academic Press.
125. Tyler, E. B. 1889 On a Method of Investigating the Development of Institutions. Journal of the Anthropological Institute 18:245-272.
126. Vansina, J. 1990 Paths in the Rainforests: Towards a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
127. Waller, R. 1986 Ecology, Migration, and Expansion in East Africa. African Affairs 85:347-370.
128. Weingart, P., R. Boyd, W. H. Durham, and P. J. Richerson 1997 Units of Culture, Types of Transmission. In Human by Nature: Between Biology and the Social Sciences. P. Weingart, S. D. Mitchell, P. J. Richerson, and S. Maasen, eds. Pp. 299-325. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
129. Westoby, M., M. R. Leishman, and J. M. Lord 1995 On Misinterpreting the Phylogenetic Correction. Journal of Ecology 83(3):531-534.
130. White, D. R. 1988 Rethinking Polygyny: Co-Wives, Codes, and Cultural Systems. Current Anthropology 29:529-571.
131. Winans, E. V. 1964 The Shambala Family. In The Family Estate in Africa. R. F. Gray and P. H. Gulliver, eds. Pp. 35-61. Boston: Boston University Press.
132. Winterhalder, B., and E. A. Smith 2000 Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty-Five. Evolutionary Anthropology 9(2):51-72.