Bad civil society

Political Theory

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2001, Pages 837-865

  Chambers, Simone ^a   Kopstein, Jeffrey ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035540187     PISSN: 00905917     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0090591701029006008     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Michael Walzer uses this phrase in "The Civil Society Argument," Dimensions of Radical Democracy, ed. Chantal Mouffe (London: Verso, 1992), 89-107. Our use is somewhat more generic but essentially the same.
2. There are so many proponents of versions of this argument that it would be difficult to list them all. Mark Warren notes that "within democratic theory a remarkable consensus is emerging around Tocqueville's view that the virtues and viability of democracy depend on the robustness of associational life." Democracy and the Terrain of Association (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). Here is a sample of the diversity of the list that includes liberals, communitarians, and critical theorists: Michael Walzer, "Civil Society Argument"; Joshua Cohen and Joel Rogers, Associations and Democracy (New York: Verso, 1995); Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993); Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
3. There are so many proponents of versions of this argument that it would be difficult to list them all. Mark Warren notes that "within democratic theory a remarkable consensus is emerging around Tocqueville's view that the virtues and viability of democracy depend on the robustness of associational life." Democracy and the Terrain of Association (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). Here is a sample of the diversity of the list that includes liberals, communitarians, and critical theorists: Michael Walzer, "Civil Society Argument"; Joshua Cohen and Joel Rogers, Associations and Democracy (New York: Verso, 1995); Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993); Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
4. There are so many proponents of versions of this argument that it would be difficult to list them all. Mark Warren notes that "within democratic theory a remarkable consensus is emerging around Tocqueville's view that the virtues and viability of democracy depend on the robustness of associational life." Democracy and the Terrain of Association (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). Here is a sample of the diversity of the list that includes liberals, communitarians, and critical theorists: Michael Walzer, "Civil Society Argument"; Joshua Cohen and Joel Rogers, Associations and Democracy (New York: Verso, 1995); Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993); Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
5. There are so many proponents of versions of this argument that it would be difficult to list them all. Mark Warren notes that "within democratic theory a remarkable consensus is emerging around Tocqueville's view that the virtues and viability of democracy depend on the robustness of associational life." Democracy and the Terrain of Association (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). Here is a sample of the diversity of the list that includes liberals, communitarians, and critical theorists: Michael Walzer, "Civil Society Argument"; Joshua Cohen and Joel Rogers, Associations and Democracy (New York: Verso, 1995); Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993); Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
6. There are so many proponents of versions of this argument that it would be difficult to list them all. Mark Warren notes that "within democratic theory a remarkable consensus is emerging around Tocqueville's view that the virtues and viability of democracy depend on the robustness of associational life." Democracy and the Terrain of Association (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). Here is a sample of the diversity of the list that includes liberals, communitarians, and critical theorists: Michael Walzer, "Civil Society Argument"; Joshua Cohen and Joel Rogers, Associations and Democracy (New York: Verso, 1995); Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993); Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
7. Yael Tamir also thinks that "bad" civil society poses some problems for the civil society argument although for quite different reasons than ours. See Yael Tamir, "Revisiting the Civic Sphere," Freedom of Association, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214-39. Mark Warren, Amy Gutmann, and Jean Cohen note that theorists should be cautious in their enthusiasm for a blanket positive effect of group membership. See Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association; Amy Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," Freedom of Association, 6; Jean Cohen, "Trust, Voluntary Associations and Workable Democracy: The Contemporary American Discourse of Civil Society," Democracy and Trust, ed. Mark Warren (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 208-48. Nancy Rosenblum offers one of the few extended discussions of bad groups but, in the end, does not think that we need to be overly worried and, indeed, sometimes argues that "bad" groups can have good effects. We challenge this reading below. See Nancy Rosenblum, Membership and Morals: The Personal Uses of Pluralism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 239-84. Robert Putnam has recently acknowledged that "social capital" can be bad, but, as we discuss below, he does not in fact address the problem we are raising. See Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
8. Yael Tamir also thinks that "bad" civil society poses some problems for the civil society argument although for quite different reasons than ours. See Yael Tamir, "Revisiting the Civic Sphere," Freedom of Association, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214-39. Mark Warren, Amy Gutmann, and Jean Cohen note that theorists should be cautious in their enthusiasm for a blanket positive effect of group membership. See Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association; Amy Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," Freedom of Association, 6; Jean Cohen, "Trust, Voluntary Associations and Workable Democracy: The Contemporary American Discourse of Civil Society," Democracy and Trust, ed. Mark Warren (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 208-48. Nancy Rosenblum offers one of the few extended discussions of bad groups but, in the end, does not think that we need to be overly worried and, indeed, sometimes argues that "bad" groups can have good effects. We challenge this reading below. See Nancy Rosenblum, Membership and Morals: The Personal Uses of Pluralism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 239-84. Robert Putnam has recently acknowledged that "social capital" can be bad, but, as we discuss below, he does not in fact address the problem we are raising. See Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
9. Yael Tamir also thinks that "bad" civil society poses some problems for the civil society argument although for quite different reasons than ours. See Yael Tamir, "Revisiting the Civic Sphere," Freedom of Association, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214-39. Mark Warren, Amy Gutmann, and Jean Cohen note that theorists should be cautious in their enthusiasm for a blanket positive effect of group membership. See Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association; Amy Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," Freedom of Association, 6; Jean Cohen, "Trust, Voluntary Associations and Workable Democracy: The Contemporary American Discourse of Civil Society," Democracy and Trust, ed. Mark Warren (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 208-48. Nancy Rosenblum offers one of the few extended discussions of bad groups but, in the end, does not think that we need to be overly worried and, indeed, sometimes argues that "bad" groups can have good effects. We challenge this reading below. See Nancy Rosenblum, Membership and Morals: The Personal Uses of Pluralism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 239-84. Robert Putnam has recently acknowledged that "social capital" can be bad, but, as we discuss below, he does not in fact address the problem we are raising. See Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
10. Yael Tamir also thinks that "bad" civil society poses some problems for the civil society argument although for quite different reasons than ours. See Yael Tamir, "Revisiting the Civic Sphere," Freedom of Association, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214-39. Mark Warren, Amy Gutmann, and Jean Cohen note that theorists should be cautious in their enthusiasm for a blanket positive effect of group membership. See Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association; Amy Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," Freedom of Association, 6; Jean Cohen, "Trust, Voluntary Associations and Workable Democracy: The Contemporary American Discourse of Civil Society," Democracy and Trust, ed. Mark Warren (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 208-48. Nancy Rosenblum offers one of the few extended discussions of bad groups but, in the end, does not think that we need to be overly worried and, indeed, sometimes argues that "bad" groups can have good effects. We challenge this reading below. See Nancy Rosenblum, Membership and Morals: The Personal Uses of Pluralism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 239-84. Robert Putnam has recently acknowledged that "social capital" can be bad, but, as we discuss below, he does not in fact address the problem we are raising. See Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
11. Yael Tamir also thinks that "bad" civil society poses some problems for the civil society argument although for quite different reasons than ours. See Yael Tamir, "Revisiting the Civic Sphere," Freedom of Association, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214-39. Mark Warren, Amy Gutmann, and Jean Cohen note that theorists should be cautious in their enthusiasm for a blanket positive effect of group membership. See Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association; Amy Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," Freedom of Association, 6; Jean Cohen, "Trust, Voluntary Associations and Workable Democracy: The Contemporary American Discourse of Civil Society," Democracy and Trust, ed. Mark Warren (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 208-48. Nancy Rosenblum offers one of the few extended discussions of bad groups but, in the end, does not think that we need to be overly worried and, indeed, sometimes argues that "bad" groups can have good effects. We challenge this reading below. See Nancy Rosenblum, Membership and Morals: The Personal Uses of Pluralism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 239-84. Robert Putnam has recently acknowledged that "social capital" can be bad, but, as we discuss below, he does not in fact address the problem we are raising. See Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
12. Yael Tamir also thinks that "bad" civil society poses some problems for the civil society argument although for quite different reasons than ours. See Yael Tamir, "Revisiting the Civic Sphere," Freedom of Association, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 214-39. Mark Warren, Amy Gutmann, and Jean Cohen note that theorists should be cautious in their enthusiasm for a blanket positive effect of group membership. See Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association; Amy Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," Freedom of Association, 6; Jean Cohen, "Trust, Voluntary Associations and Workable Democracy: The Contemporary American Discourse of Civil Society," Democracy and Trust, ed. Mark Warren (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 208-48. Nancy Rosenblum offers one of the few extended discussions of bad groups but, in the end, does not think that we need to be overly worried and, indeed, sometimes argues that "bad" groups can have good effects. We challenge this reading below. See Nancy Rosenblum, Membership and Morals: The Personal Uses of Pluralism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 239-84. Robert Putnam has recently acknowledged that "social capital" can be bad, but, as we discuss below, he does not in fact address the problem we are raising. See Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
13. In comparative politics there is a vast literature on extremism and radicalism. This literature does not often cross paths with the civil society discourse.
14. Jean L. Cohen, "Does Voluntary Association Make Democracy Work?" Diversity and Its Discontents: Cultural Conflict and Common Ground in Contemporary American Society, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Jeffrey C. Alexander (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press, 1999), 263-92; Seymour Martin Lipset, "Malaise and Resiliency in America," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 3 (1995): 4-18; Robert D. Putnam, "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78; Theda Skocpol, ed., Civic Engagement in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schozma, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
15. Jean L. Cohen, "Does Voluntary Association Make Democracy Work?" Diversity and Its Discontents: Cultural Conflict and Common Ground in Contemporary American Society, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Jeffrey C. Alexander (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press, 1999), 263-92; Seymour Martin Lipset, "Malaise and Resiliency in America," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 3 (1995): 4-18; Robert D. Putnam, "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78; Theda Skocpol, ed., Civic Engagement in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schozma, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
16. Jean L. Cohen, "Does Voluntary Association Make Democracy Work?" Diversity and Its Discontents: Cultural Conflict and Common Ground in Contemporary American Society, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Jeffrey C. Alexander (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press, 1999), 263-92; Seymour Martin Lipset, "Malaise and Resiliency in America," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 3 (1995): 4-18; Robert D. Putnam, "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78; Theda Skocpol, ed., Civic Engagement in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schozma, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
17. Jean L. Cohen, "Does Voluntary Association Make Democracy Work?" Diversity and Its Discontents: Cultural Conflict and Common Ground in Contemporary American Society, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Jeffrey C. Alexander (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press, 1999), 263-92; Seymour Martin Lipset, "Malaise and Resiliency in America," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 3 (1995): 4-18; Robert D. Putnam, "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78; Theda Skocpol, ed., Civic Engagement in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schozma, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
18. Jean L. Cohen, "Does Voluntary Association Make Democracy Work?" Diversity and Its Discontents: Cultural Conflict and Common Ground in Contemporary American Society, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Jeffrey C. Alexander (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press, 1999), 263-92; Seymour Martin Lipset, "Malaise and Resiliency in America," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 3 (1995): 4-18; Robert D. Putnam, "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78; Theda Skocpol, ed., Civic Engagement in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schozma, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
19. Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 36-41.
20. See Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association, for a thorough survey and helpful theory of the full democratic potential of civil society.
21. See Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). See Note 2.
22. Although extreme forms of hate like that represented by the World Church of the Creator are easy to identify, we acknowledge that the category "bad civil society," like all social typologies, will slide into some gray areas around its edges. We discuss some of these below.
23. Putnam, "Bowling Alone," 65.
24. Ibid., 65. See also Putnam, Bowling Alone, 27.
25. Ibid., 65. See also Putnam, Bowling Alone, 27.
26. Putnam, "Bowling Alone," 70. See also Putnam, Bowling Alone, 112-15.
27. Putnam, "Bowling Alone," 70. See also Putnam, Bowling Alone, 112-15.
28. Putnam, "Bowling Alone," 67. See also Putnam, Bowling Alone, 19.
29. Putnam, "Bowling Alone," 67. See also Putnam, Bowling Alone, 19.
30. Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," 6.
31. Putnam, Bowling Alone, 22.
32. Ibid., 22.
33. Ibid., 23-24.
34. See ibid., where, in a chapter titled "The Dark Side of Social Capital," Putnam answers the charge that toleration was on the rise precisely at the same time as, according to his argument, civic engagement was on the wane. Thus the question arises, Does associational engagement encourage narrowness and hinder tolerance? Putnam denies the general correlation but admits "some kinds of bonding social capital may discourage the formation of bridging social capital and vice versa" (p. 362). He never takes it further than this general observation. He never asks which forms of bonding hinder bridging or why some people are more likely to be attracted to those forms rather than more democracy-friendly (or at least democracy-neutral) forms of bonding. (See also p. 400.)
35. Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 59.
36. Michael W. Foley and Bob Edwards, "The Paradox of Civil Society," Journal of Democracy 7, no. 3 (July 1996): 46.
37. Sheri Berman, "Civil Society and the Collapse of the Weimar Republic," World Politics 49, no. 3 ( 1997): 401-29; Stephen Hanson and Jeffrey Kopstein, "The Weimar/Russia Comparison," Post-Soviet Affairs 13, no. 3 (1997): 252-83.
38. Sheri Berman, "Civil Society and the Collapse of the Weimar Republic," World Politics 49, no. 3 ( 1997): 401-29; Stephen Hanson and Jeffrey Kopstein, "The Weimar/Russia Comparison," Post-Soviet Affairs 13, no. 3 (1997): 252-83.
39. Fiuppo Sabetti, "Path Dependency and Civic Culture: Some Lessons from Italy about Interpreting Social Experiments," Politics and Society 24 (1996), 19-44.
40. David Rohde, Endgame: The Betrayal and Fall of Srebrenica, Europe's Worst Massacre since World War II (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1997).
41. Jeffrey Kopstein and Stephen Hanson, "Paths to Uncivil Societies and Anti-Liberal States," Post-Soviet Affairs 14, no. 4 (1998): 369-76.
42. For a view of the extent of illiberalism in America, see Lyman T. Sargent, Extremism in America (New York: New York University Press, 1995).
43. Nancy Rosenblum makes this argument in Membership and Morals, 35.
44. Is America experiencing an "insidious erosion of values"? On one hand, there is overwhelming evidence that at the aggregate level, Americans are more tolerant than ever of difference. On the other hand, the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) warns us that the number of Web sites devoted to hate has exploded and more and more youth are being lured into hate groups. On one hand, civil rights are firmly entrenched in America; on the other, thinly veiled nativism is on the initiative agendas of many states. Our point is not to resolve this debate one way or another. All we are saying is hate (any amount of it) is bad, particularly for those who are its targets. The American public sphere has no special exemption or protection from the insidious effects of hate beyond our vigilance and understanding of the phenomenon.
45. Was George W. Bush's much criticized visit to Bob Jones University evidence of our strong defenses against bigotry or a sad reminder that such "slips" do not really cost public figures much? It says much for the American public that there was an immediate outcry against the visit. But there are also many Americans, not just African Americans, who are devastated that we elected a man who, in the year 2000, still could not see for himself any problem with such a visit or, worse, calculated that such a visit would help his political chances.
46. The support for Farrakhan among the non-Muslim black population in the United States in the 1990s varied according to how the question was asked and the immediate context in which it was asked. In two opinion surveys conducted for Time and Newsweek between February 1994 (directly after the controversy surrounding Khalid Muhammad's inflammatory Kean College Speech) and October 1995, the results remained remarkably consistent. Forty-eight percent of black respondents held that Farrakhan was not a bigot and a racist. More than half (59 percent) thought that he spoke truthfully, and half considered him a positive role model of black youth and as a positive influence in the community. For a summary of these and other surveys, see Robert Singh, The Farrakhan Phenomenon: Race, Reaction, and the Paranoid Style in American Politics (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press 1997), 205-10.
47. William Brustein, The Logic of Evil: The Social Origins of the Nazi Party, 1925-1933 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996). For a similar argument about the Nazi vote, see Richard Hamilton, Who Voted For Hitler? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).
48. William Brustein, The Logic of Evil: The Social Origins of the Nazi Party, 1925-1933 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996). For a similar argument about the Nazi vote, see Richard Hamilton, Who Voted For Hitler? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).
49. Kopstein and Hanson, "Weimar-Russia Comparison," 252-83.
50. Veljko Vujacic, "Genaddiy Zyuganov and the 'Third Road,'" Post-Soviet Affairs 12, no. 2 (1996): 118-54.
51. Stephen White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1997).
52. Southern Poverty Law Center, "Youth at the Edge: A Generation in Danger from Hate Groups" [Online]. (Southern Poverty Law Center Web site, December 1999). Available from: http://www.splcenter.org/cgi-bin/goframe.pl?dirname=/whatsnew&pagename= index.html.
53. Clearly, economic conditions shape the tactics and vitality of political organizations, whether it be the Nazi Party in Germany during the 1930s or the Ku Klux Klan in the United States during the 1970s. The question is whether similar group dynamics shape the patterns of unorganized mass action carried out sporadically by small groups. Our empirical findings may suggest the importance of distinguishing between coordinated and uncoordinated forms of collective action. (Donald P. Green, Dara Z. Strolovitch, and Janelle S. Wong, "Defended Neighborhoods, Integration, and Racially Motivated Crime" American Journal of Sociology 104, no. 2 [September 1998], 372)
54. Robert Wuthnow, "The Changing Character of Social Capital in the United States" (paper presented at Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, May 13, 2000), 55.
55. Andrew C. Janos, East-Central Europe in the Modern World, (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000); Robert W. Tucker, The Inequality of Nations, (New York: Basic Books, 1977).
56. Andrew C. Janos, East-Central Europe in the Modern World, (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000); Robert W. Tucker, The Inequality of Nations, (New York: Basic Books, 1977).
57. The most important articles that not only summarize the huge existing literature but also provide new research are Robert W. Jackman and Karin Volpert, "Conditions Favouring Parties of the Extreme Right in Western Europe" British Journal of Political Science 26, no. 4 (1996): 501-21; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell, "French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test," Electoral Studies 12, no. 2 (1993): 112-27; Subrata Mitra, "The National Front in France: A Single-Issue Movement?" Right Wing Extremism in Western Europe, ed. Klaus von Beyme (London: Frank Cass, 1988), 47-64; Gerrit Voerman and Paul Lujcardie, "The Extreme Right in the Netherlands," European Journal of Political Research 22, no. 1 (1992): 35-54. On membership in right-wing extremist movements that are inclined to violence, the most extensive research has been carried out in East Germany. Again, the link between high unemployment and right-wing group violence is quite clear, if not easily interpreted. For a summary of this research, see Armin Pfahl-Traughber, "Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus in Ost-und Westdeutschland," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte no. 39 (2000): 3-14.
58. The most important articles that not only summarize the huge existing literature but also provide new research are Robert W. Jackman and Karin Volpert, "Conditions Favouring Parties of the Extreme Right in Western Europe" British Journal of Political Science 26, no. 4 (1996): 501-21; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell, "French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test," Electoral Studies 12, no. 2 (1993): 112-27; Subrata Mitra, "The National Front in France: A Single-Issue Movement?" Right Wing Extremism in Western Europe, ed. Klaus von Beyme (London: Frank Cass, 1988), 47-64; Gerrit Voerman and Paul Lujcardie, "The Extreme Right in the Netherlands," European Journal of Political Research 22, no. 1 (1992): 35-54. On membership in right-wing extremist movements that are inclined to violence, the most extensive research has been carried out in East Germany. Again, the link between high unemployment and right-wing group violence is quite clear, if not easily interpreted. For a summary of this research, see Armin Pfahl-Traughber, "Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus in Ost-und Westdeutschland," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte no. 39 (2000): 3-14.
59. The most important articles that not only summarize the huge existing literature but also provide new research are Robert W. Jackman and Karin Volpert, "Conditions Favouring Parties of the Extreme Right in Western Europe" British Journal of Political Science 26, no. 4 (1996): 501-21; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell, "French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test," Electoral Studies 12, no. 2 (1993): 112-27; Subrata Mitra, "The National Front in France: A Single-Issue Movement?" Right Wing Extremism in Western Europe, ed. Klaus von Beyme (London: Frank Cass, 1988), 47-64; Gerrit Voerman and Paul Lujcardie, "The Extreme Right in the Netherlands," European Journal of Political Research 22, no. 1 (1992): 35-54. On membership in right-wing extremist movements that are inclined to violence, the most extensive research has been carried out in East Germany. Again, the link between high unemployment and right-wing group violence is quite clear, if not easily interpreted. For a summary of this research, see Armin Pfahl-Traughber, "Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus in Ost-und Westdeutschland," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte no. 39 (2000): 3-14.
60. The most important articles that not only summarize the huge existing literature but also provide new research are Robert W. Jackman and Karin Volpert, "Conditions Favouring Parties of the Extreme Right in Western Europe" British Journal of Political Science 26, no. 4 (1996): 501-21; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell, "French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test," Electoral Studies 12, no. 2 (1993): 112-27; Subrata Mitra, "The National Front in France: A Single-Issue Movement?" Right Wing Extremism in Western Europe, ed. Klaus von Beyme (London: Frank Cass, 1988), 47-64; Gerrit Voerman and Paul Lujcardie, "The Extreme Right in the Netherlands," European Journal of Political Research 22, no. 1 (1992): 35-54. On membership in right-wing extremist movements that are inclined to violence, the most extensive research has been carried out in East Germany. Again, the link between high unemployment and right-wing group violence is quite clear, if not easily interpreted. For a summary of this research, see Armin Pfahl-Traughber, "Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus in Ost-und Westdeutschland," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte no. 39 (2000): 3-14.
61. The most important articles that not only summarize the huge existing literature but also provide new research are Robert W. Jackman and Karin Volpert, "Conditions Favouring Parties of the Extreme Right in Western Europe" British Journal of Political Science 26, no. 4 (1996): 501-21; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell, "French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test," Electoral Studies 12, no. 2 (1993): 112-27; Subrata Mitra, "The National Front in France: A Single-Issue Movement?" Right Wing Extremism in Western Europe, ed. Klaus von Beyme (London: Frank Cass, 1988), 47-64; Gerrit Voerman and Paul Lujcardie, "The Extreme Right in the Netherlands," European Journal of Political Research 22, no. 1 (1992): 35-54. On membership in right-wing extremist movements that are inclined to violence, the most extensive research has been carried out in East Germany. Again, the link between high unemployment and right-wing group violence is quite clear, if not easily interpreted. For a summary of this research, see Armin Pfahl-Traughber, "Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus in Ost-und Westdeutschland," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte no. 39 (2000): 3-14.
62. Although, in the case of East Germany, some studies do point to the unemployed and especially unemployed youth as being overrepresented in violent groups. See Pfhal-Traughber, "Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus," 11; Frank Neubacher, Fremdenfeindliche Brandanschläge. Eine kriminologisch-empirische Untersuchung von Tätern, Tathintergründen und gerichtlicher Verarbeitung in Jugendstrafverfahren (Mönchengladbach, 1999).
63. Although, in the case of East Germany, some studies do point to the unemployed and especially unemployed youth as being overrepresented in violent groups. See Pfhal-Traughber, "Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus," 11; Frank Neubacher, Fremdenfeindliche Brandanschläge. Eine kriminologisch-empirische Untersuchung von Tätern, Tathintergründen und gerichtlicher Verarbeitung in Jugendstrafverfahren (Mönchengladbach, 1999).
64. Lewis-Beck and Mitchell, "French Electoral Theory."
65. Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 22.
66. Quoted in Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 9, 272.
67. Raphael S. Ezekiel, The Racist Mind (New York: Viking, 1995).
68. Quoted in Bob Herbert, "When Hate Sees an Opening," New York Times, January 17, 2000, A17.
69. The data she cites, however, are almost entirely concerned with isolated hate crimes rather than group membership or strength. See Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 278-79.
70. Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 278.
71. See, for example, Kent Greenawalt, "Freedom of Association and Religious Association," Freedom of Association, 109-44; George Kateb, "The Value of Association," Freedom of Association, 35-63; Peter de Marneffe, "Rights, Reasons, and Freedom of Association," Freedom of Association, 145-73.
72. See, for example, Kent Greenawalt, "Freedom of Association and Religious Association," Freedom of Association, 109-44; George Kateb, "The Value of Association," Freedom of Association, 35-63; Peter de Marneffe, "Rights, Reasons, and Freedom of Association," Freedom of Association, 145-73.
73. See, for example, Kent Greenawalt, "Freedom of Association and Religious Association," Freedom of Association, 109-44; George Kateb, "The Value of Association," Freedom of Association, 35-63; Peter de Marneffe, "Rights, Reasons, and Freedom of Association," Freedom of Association, 145-73.
74. This impression is sometimes intentional, as with theorists who think we should leave civil society alone as much as possible. See, for example, Kateb, "Value of Association." For others, the impression is unintentional, as with theorists who simply concentrate on constitutional cases in their writings, not meaning by that that we should not also publicly criticize groups even they are afforded protection under the constitution. See, for example, Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay."
75. This impression is sometimes intentional, as with theorists who think we should leave civil society alone as much as possible. See, for example, Kateb, "Value of Association." For others, the impression is unintentional, as with theorists who simply concentrate on constitutional cases in their writings, not meaning by that that we should not also publicly criticize groups even they are afforded protection under the constitution. See, for example, Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay."
76. Gutmann, "Freedom of Association: An Introductory Essay," 7.
77. Intermarriage is a hard case for our category "bad civil society." Are orthodox Jewish groups that forbid marrying non-Jews as "bad" as a hypothetical Bob Jones Church that forbids marrying blacks? As with all typologies, one must deal with gray areas on a case-by-case basis. Here we would say that both the intent of the rule as well as the effect must be looked at in context. For example, that the Bob Jones Church is preaching to a majority and empowered group and has specifically targeted a minority disempowered group, while orthodox Jewish groups, in the United States anyway, are in the opposite situation, is not irrelevant in evaluating the social message being sent by any given rule. Ultimately, however, one must ask if a rule or policy is accompanied by hate and malevolence toward others. Would this rule, for example, hinder group members' interacting with, say, non-Jews or African Americans in other contexts? Taking these sorts of questions into consideration, it is possible to make distinctions, although they might be somewhat messy.
78. Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 17.
79. Stephen Macedo, "Constituting Civil Society: School Vouchers, Religious Nonprofit Organizations, and Liberal Public Values," Chicago-Kent Law Review 74: 800, p. 113, emphasis added.
80. For an interesting argument along these lines, see Nadia Urbanati, "A Phenomenology of Associational Life," The Good Society 9, no. 1 (1999): 58-60.
81. For a survey of the variety, see Warren, Democracy and the Terrain of Association, chaps. 2, 4.
82. See Daniel A. Bell, David Brown, Kanishka Jayasuriya, David M. Jones, ed., Towards Illiberal Democracy in Pacific Asia (New York: St. Martin's, 1995).
83. Hasan Hanafi, "Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society: A Reflective Islamic Approach," A Iternative Conceptions of Civil Society, ed. Simone Chambers and Will Kymlicka (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, forthcoming). See also Suzanne Last Stone, "The Jewish Tradition of Civil Society," ibid. , and Richard Madsen, "Confucian Conceptions of Civil Society," ibid., for further variations on the liberal conception.
84. Hasan Hanafi, "Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society: A Reflective Islamic Approach," A Iternative Conceptions of Civil Society, ed. Simone Chambers and Will Kymlicka (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, forthcoming). See also Suzanne Last Stone, "The Jewish Tradition of Civil Society," ibid. , and Richard Madsen, "Confucian Conceptions of Civil Society," ibid., for further variations on the liberal conception.
85. Hasan Hanafi, "Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society: A Reflective Islamic Approach," A Iternative Conceptions of Civil Society, ed. Simone Chambers and Will Kymlicka (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, forthcoming). See also Suzanne Last Stone, "The Jewish Tradition of Civil Society," ibid. , and Richard Madsen, "Confucian Conceptions of Civil Society," ibid., for further variations on the liberal conception.
86. Hasan Hanafi, "Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society: A Reflective Islamic Approach," A Iternative Conceptions of Civil Society, ed. Simone Chambers and Will Kymlicka (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, forthcoming). See also Suzanne Last Stone, "The Jewish Tradition of Civil Society," ibid. , and Richard Madsen, "Confucian Conceptions of Civil Society," ibid., for further variations on the liberal conception.
87. Hasan Hanafi, "Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society: A Reflective Islamic Approach," A Iternative Conceptions of Civil Society, ed. Simone Chambers and Will Kymlicka (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, forthcoming). See also Suzanne Last Stone, "The Jewish Tradition of Civil Society," ibid. , and Richard Madsen, "Confucian Conceptions of Civil Society," ibid., for further variations on the liberal conception.
88. William Galston, Liberal Purposes (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 255.
89. Rosenblum, Membership and Morals, 39.
90. Stephen Macedo, "Community, Diversity, and Civic Education: Toward a Liberal Political Science of Group Life," Social Philosophy and Policy 13 (Winter 1996), 240-68.
91. Sarah Henderson, "Exporting Civil Society: Foreign Funding and Women's Groups in Post-Soviet Russia" (Ph.D. diss., Department of Political Science, University of Colorado at Boulder, 2000).
92. Yael Tamir, "Revisiting the Civic Sphere," 224.
93. Seyla Benhabib, Situating the Self: Gender, Community, and Postmodernism in Contemporary Ethics (New York: Routledge, 1992), 77-78.
94. Herman, "Civil Society and the Collapse of the Weimar Republic," 424-25.
95. Albert Makashov, "Usurers of Russia," quoted in Johnson's Russia List, no. 2461 (November 6, 1998), 7.
96. Foley and Edwards, "Paradox of Civil Society," 48.
97. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, esp., 523-32; Jürgen Habermas, "Further Reflections on the Public Sphere," Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Claxon (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993), esp., 452-57.
98. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, esp., 523-32; Jürgen Habermas, "Further Reflections on the Public Sphere," Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Claxon (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993), esp., 452-57.