'Creative solutions' and 'fibbing results': Enculturation in field ecology

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 533-556

  Roth, Wolff Michael ^a   Bowen, G Michael ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

^b LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Constraint satisfaction; Emergence of practices; Inscriptions; Replication; Socialization

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035539245     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631201031004003     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
2. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
3. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
4. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
5. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
6. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
7. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
8. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
9. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
10. Among the laboratory studies, those by Karin Knorr Cetina, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, and Michael Lynch have achieved something of a cult status. See Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986); and Michael Lynch, Art and Artifact in Laboratory Science: A Study of Shop Work and Shop Talk in a Laboratory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985). For cases that document the problematic nature of replication, see H.M. Collins, 'The Seven Sexes: A Study in the Sociology of a Phenomenon, or the Replication of Experiments in Physics', Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1975), 205-24; H.M. Collins, 'Son of Seven Sexes: The Social Destruction of a Physical Phenomenon', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 33-62; H.M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1992); Trevor J. Pinch, 'The Sun-Set: The Presentation of Certainty in Scientific Life', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 131-58. Interesting historical cases of the troubles in replication were also provided by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), and David Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning: Human Agency in Scientific Observation and Experiment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). A very recent study in which replication took a central rôle is provided in Daniel Kennefick, 'Star Crushing: Theoretical Practice and the Theoreticians' Regress', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 5-40.
11. Probably the most detailed descriptions of induction into a scientific community were provided in Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). An in-depth study of the enculturation of engineers is provided in Karen Tonso, Constructing Engineers through Practice: Gendered Features of Learning and Identity Development (Boulder, CO: Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Colorado, 1997). One of our own case studies documented the field work of a PhD student in ecology over a two-year period: Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64. Sara Delamont and Paul Atkinson have provided a report on the discursive construction of doctoral work, in S. Delamont and P. Atkinson, 'Doctoring Uncertainty: Mastering Craft Knowledge', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 31, No. 1 (February 2001), 87-107; and Sara Delamont, Paul Atkinson and Odette Parry, in their The Doctoral Experience (London: Falmer, 2000), provide more data on this research, including the enculturation of anthropologists and other practitioners of sciences with fieldwork components. These latter studies are quite different from our own work because they are based on participants' accounts of fieldwork, rather than on the documentation of fieldwork itself.
12. Probably the most detailed descriptions of induction into a scientific community were provided in Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). An in-depth study of the enculturation of engineers is provided in Karen Tonso, Constructing Engineers through Practice: Gendered Features of Learning and Identity Development (Boulder, CO: Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Colorado, 1997). One of our own case studies documented the field work of a PhD student in ecology over a two-year period: Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64. Sara Delamont and Paul Atkinson have provided a report on the discursive construction of doctoral work, in S. Delamont and P. Atkinson, 'Doctoring Uncertainty: Mastering Craft Knowledge', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 31, No. 1 (February 2001), 87-107; and Sara Delamont, Paul Atkinson and Odette Parry, in their The Doctoral Experience (London: Falmer, 2000), provide more data on this research, including the enculturation of anthropologists and other practitioners of sciences with fieldwork components. These latter studies are quite different from our own work because they are based on participants' accounts of fieldwork, rather than on the documentation of fieldwork itself.
13. Probably the most detailed descriptions of induction into a scientific community were provided in Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). An in-depth study of the enculturation of engineers is provided in Karen Tonso, Constructing Engineers through Practice: Gendered Features of Learning and Identity Development (Boulder, CO: Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Colorado, 1997). One of our own case studies documented the field work of a PhD student in ecology over a two-year period: Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64. Sara Delamont and Paul Atkinson have provided a report on the discursive construction of doctoral work, in S. Delamont and P. Atkinson, 'Doctoring Uncertainty: Mastering Craft Knowledge', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 31, No. 1 (February 2001), 87-107; and Sara Delamont, Paul Atkinson and Odette Parry, in their The Doctoral Experience (London: Falmer, 2000), provide more data on this research, including the enculturation of anthropologists and other practitioners of sciences with fieldwork components. These latter studies are quite different from our own work because they are based on participants' accounts of fieldwork, rather than on the documentation of fieldwork itself.
14. Probably the most detailed descriptions of induction into a scientific community were provided in Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). An in-depth study of the enculturation of engineers is provided in Karen Tonso, Constructing Engineers through Practice: Gendered Features of Learning and Identity Development (Boulder, CO: Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Colorado, 1997). One of our own case studies documented the field work of a PhD student in ecology over a two-year period: Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64. Sara Delamont and Paul Atkinson have provided a report on the discursive construction of doctoral work, in S. Delamont and P. Atkinson, 'Doctoring Uncertainty: Mastering Craft Knowledge', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 31, No. 1 (February 2001), 87-107; and Sara Delamont, Paul Atkinson and Odette Parry, in their The Doctoral Experience (London: Falmer, 2000), provide more data on this research, including the enculturation of anthropologists and other practitioners of sciences with fieldwork components. These latter studies are quite different from our own work because they are based on participants' accounts of fieldwork, rather than on the documentation of fieldwork itself.
15. Probably the most detailed descriptions of induction into a scientific community were provided in Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). An in-depth study of the enculturation of engineers is provided in Karen Tonso, Constructing Engineers through Practice: Gendered Features of Learning and Identity Development (Boulder, CO: Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Colorado, 1997). One of our own case studies documented the field work of a PhD student in ecology over a two-year period: Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64. Sara Delamont and Paul Atkinson have provided a report on the discursive construction of doctoral work, in S. Delamont and P. Atkinson, 'Doctoring Uncertainty: Mastering Craft Knowledge', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 31, No. 1 (February 2001), 87-107; and Sara Delamont, Paul Atkinson and Odette Parry, in their The Doctoral Experience (London: Falmer, 2000), provide more data on this research, including the enculturation of anthropologists and other practitioners of sciences with fieldwork components. These latter studies are quite different from our own work because they are based on participants' accounts of fieldwork, rather than on the documentation of fieldwork itself.
16. Reproducing scientific instruments or procedures sometimes requires extensive training that occurs 'at the elbows' of more experienced peers, because reading instructions and articles are often insufficient to guarantee technology or skill 'transfer'. Harry Collins has provided a case study where physicists were able to construct their own TEA laser only after spending time with the team that had pioneered it; and Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch provide details of how an experienced individual had to visit another lab in order to get her PCA analysis to work. See H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2 (May 1974), 165-86 [an edited version of this paper is in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks., UK: Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 44-64]; Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch, 'The Mainstreaming of a Molecular Biological Tool: A Case Study of a New Technique', in Graham Button (ed.), Technology in Working Order: Studies of Work, Interaction, and Technology (London & New York: Routledge, 1993), 162-78; Jordan and Lynch, 'The Dissemination, Standardization and Routinization of a Molecular Biological Technique', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, No. 5-6 (October-December 1998), 773-800.
17. Reproducing scientific instruments or procedures sometimes requires extensive training that occurs 'at the elbows' of more experienced peers, because reading instructions and articles are often insufficient to guarantee technology or skill 'transfer'. Harry Collins has provided a case study where physicists were able to construct their own TEA laser only after spending time with the team that had pioneered it; and Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch provide details of how an experienced individual had to visit another lab in order to get her PCA analysis to work. See H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2 (May 1974), 165-86 [an edited version of this paper is in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks., UK: Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 44-64]; Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch, 'The Mainstreaming of a Molecular Biological Tool: A Case Study of a New Technique', in Graham Button (ed.), Technology in Working Order: Studies of Work, Interaction, and Technology (London & New York: Routledge, 1993), 162-78; Jordan and Lynch, 'The Dissemination, Standardization and Routinization of a Molecular Biological Technique', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, No. 5-6 (October-December 1998), 773-800.
18. Reproducing scientific instruments or procedures sometimes requires extensive training that occurs 'at the elbows' of more experienced peers, because reading instructions and articles are often insufficient to guarantee technology or skill 'transfer'. Harry Collins has provided a case study where physicists were able to construct their own TEA laser only after spending time with the team that had pioneered it; and Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch provide details of how an experienced individual had to visit another lab in order to get her PCA analysis to work. See H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2 (May 1974), 165-86 [an edited version of this paper is in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks., UK: Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 44-64]; Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch, 'The Mainstreaming of a Molecular Biological Tool: A Case Study of a New Technique', in Graham Button (ed.), Technology in Working Order: Studies of Work, Interaction, and Technology (London & New York: Routledge, 1993), 162-78; Jordan and Lynch, 'The Dissemination, Standardization and Routinization of a Molecular Biological Technique', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, No. 5-6 (October-December 1998), 773-800.
19. Reproducing scientific instruments or procedures sometimes requires extensive training that occurs 'at the elbows' of more experienced peers, because reading instructions and articles are often insufficient to guarantee technology or skill 'transfer'. Harry Collins has provided a case study where physicists were able to construct their own TEA laser only after spending time with the team that had pioneered it; and Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch provide details of how an experienced individual had to visit another lab in order to get her PCA analysis to work. See H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2 (May 1974), 165-86 [an edited version of this paper is in Barry Barnes and David Edge (eds), Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes, Bucks., UK: Open University Press; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 44-64]; Kathleen Jordan and Michael Lynch, 'The Mainstreaming of a Molecular Biological Tool: A Case Study of a New Technique', in Graham Button (ed.), Technology in Working Order: Studies of Work, Interaction, and Technology (London & New York: Routledge, 1993), 162-78; Jordan and Lynch, 'The Dissemination, Standardization and Routinization of a Molecular Biological Technique', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28, No. 5-6 (October-December 1998), 773-800.
20. The anthropology students interviewed by Delamont, Atkinson and Parry talked a lot about the uncertainty and indeterminacy associated with doing independent and solitary fieldwork, most frequently associated with methodological trouble: see Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2, especially Chapter 5, 72-99.
21. Delamont & Atkinson, op. cit. note 2.
22. The code in anthropology, to which even unsuccessful students in the Delamont, Atkinson & Parry study adhered, required that they not be in contact with their home departments, even if their research did not take them out of Britain or Europe: see Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2, 72-99.
23. 'Doctoring Uncertainty' is the title of Delamont & Atkinson's recent paper on the topic, in this journal: op. cit. note 2.
24. Most anthropology doctoral students in the study by Delamont, Atkinson & Parry (op. cit. note 2, 72-91) felt that they were insufficiently prepared by their prior coursework. Our test was developed in the context of a cognitive study on graphing: see, for example, G. Michael Bowen, Wolff-Michael Roth and Michelle K. McGinn, 'Interpretations of Graphs by University Biology Students and Practicing Scientists: Towards a Social Practice View of Scientific Re-presentation Practices', Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 36, No. 9 (November 1999), 1020-43; W.-M. Roth and G.M. Bowen, 'Professionals Read Graphs: A Semiotic Analysis', Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 32, No. 2 (February 2001), 159-94.
25. Most anthropology doctoral students in the study by Delamont, Atkinson & Parry (op. cit. note 2, 72-91) felt that they were insufficiently prepared by their prior coursework. Our test was developed in the context of a cognitive study on graphing: see, for example, G. Michael Bowen, Wolff-Michael Roth and Michelle K. McGinn, 'Interpretations of Graphs by University Biology Students and Practicing Scientists: Towards a Social Practice View of Scientific Re-presentation Practices', Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 36, No. 9 (November 1999), 1020-43; W.-M. Roth and G.M. Bowen, 'Professionals Read Graphs: A Semiotic Analysis', Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 32, No. 2 (February 2001), 159-94.
26. The importance of this aspect can be judged by the fact that the Canadian funding agency responsible for the natural sciences provides funding for students engaging in research at that level. Our field ecologist informants tell us that about 60% of the honours students go on to do graduate work.
27. The most cogent argument put forth in this respect can be found in Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), esp. Chapter 1. These authors also point out that a culture or community is never just reproduced, but that each new member contributes new modes of production. To capture both production and reproduction, we use the notion of 'reproduction'.
28. Especially (neo-)Marxist social and psychological theories provide close connections between social and individual reality: see, for example, Pierre Bourdieu, Le sens pratique (Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit, 1980); Johannes Gadner, 'Embodying Culture: On the Socio-cultural Influences on the Development of Cognitive Structures. Anthropological Contributions to the Concept of Embodiment', Evolution and Cognition, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1998), 70-80; Klaus Holzkamp, 'Societal and Individual Life Processes', in Charles W. Tolman and Wolfgang Maiers (eds), Critical Psychology: Contributions to an Historical Science of the Subject (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 50-64.
29. Especially (neo-)Marxist social and psychological theories provide close connections between social and individual reality: see, for example, Pierre Bourdieu, Le sens pratique (Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit, 1980); Johannes Gadner, 'Embodying Culture: On the Socio-cultural Influences on the Development of Cognitive Structures. Anthropological Contributions to the Concept of Embodiment', Evolution and Cognition, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1998), 70-80; Klaus Holzkamp, 'Societal and Individual Life Processes', in Charles W. Tolman and Wolfgang Maiers (eds), Critical Psychology: Contributions to an Historical Science of the Subject (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 50-64.
30. Especially (neo-)Marxist social and psychological theories provide close connections between social and individual reality: see, for example, Pierre Bourdieu, Le sens pratique (Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit, 1980); Johannes Gadner, 'Embodying Culture: On the Socio-cultural Influences on the Development of Cognitive Structures. Anthropological Contributions to the Concept of Embodiment', Evolution and Cognition, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1998), 70-80; Klaus Holzkamp, 'Societal and Individual Life Processes', in Charles W. Tolman and Wolfgang Maiers (eds), Critical Psychology: Contributions to an Historical Science of the Subject (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 50-64.
31. We described such hardships in Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Of Disciplined Bodies and Disciplined Minds', Qualitative Sociology (in press).
32. From the activity-theoretic perspective underlying Jean Lave's work, learning is not just stuffing the mind with information or getting better at some skill, but is deeply connected with the change of identity that accompanies changing participation in practice. See, for example, Jean Lave, 'The Practice of Learning', in Seth Chaiklin and Jean Lave (eds), Understanding Practice: Perspectives on Activity and Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 3-32; Yrjö Engeström, 'Interobjectivity, Ideality, and Dialectics', Mind, Culture, and Activity, Vol. 3, No. 4 (1996), 259-65.
33. From the activity-theoretic perspective underlying Jean Lave's work, learning is not just stuffing the mind with information or getting better at some skill, but is deeply connected with the change of identity that accompanies changing participation in practice. See, for example, Jean Lave, 'The Practice of Learning', in Seth Chaiklin and Jean Lave (eds), Understanding Practice: Perspectives on Activity and Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 3-32; Yrjö Engeström, 'Interobjectivity, Ideality, and Dialectics', Mind, Culture, and Activity, Vol. 3, No. 4 (1996), 259-65.
34. This is part of the common lore in anthropology, as described by Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2, especially Chapter 5, 72-99. On apprenticeship in the sciences, see Traweek, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 3. For discussions of apprenticeship more generally, see Lave & Wenger, op. cit. note 10, Chapter 3; Esther N. Goody, 'Learning, Apprenticeship and the Division of Labor', in Michael W. Coy (ed.), Apprenticeship: From Theory to Method and Back Again (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 233-56; or Brigitte Jordan, 'Cosmopolitical Obstetrics: Some Insights from the Training of Traditional Midwives', Social Science in Medicine, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1989), 925-44.
35. This is part of the common lore in anthropology, as described by Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2, especially Chapter 5, 72-99. On apprenticeship in the sciences, see Traweek, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 3. For discussions of apprenticeship more generally, see Lave & Wenger, op. cit. note 10, Chapter 3; Esther N. Goody, 'Learning, Apprenticeship and the Division of Labor', in Michael W. Coy (ed.), Apprenticeship: From Theory to Method and Back Again (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 233-56; or Brigitte Jordan, 'Cosmopolitical Obstetrics: Some Insights from the Training of Traditional Midwives', Social Science in Medicine, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1989), 925-44.
36. This is part of the common lore in anthropology, as described by Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2, especially Chapter 5, 72-99. On apprenticeship in the sciences, see Traweek, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 3. For discussions of apprenticeship more generally, see Lave & Wenger, op. cit. note 10, Chapter 3; Esther N. Goody, 'Learning, Apprenticeship and the Division of Labor', in Michael W. Coy (ed.), Apprenticeship: From Theory to Method and Back Again (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 233-56; or Brigitte Jordan, 'Cosmopolitical Obstetrics: Some Insights from the Training of Traditional Midwives', Social Science in Medicine, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1989), 925-44.
37. This is part of the common lore in anthropology, as described by Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2, especially Chapter 5, 72-99. On apprenticeship in the sciences, see Traweek, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 3. For discussions of apprenticeship more generally, see Lave & Wenger, op. cit. note 10, Chapter 3; Esther N. Goody, 'Learning, Apprenticeship and the Division of Labor', in Michael W. Coy (ed.), Apprenticeship: From Theory to Method and Back Again (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 233-56; or Brigitte Jordan, 'Cosmopolitical Obstetrics: Some Insights from the Training of Traditional Midwives', Social Science in Medicine, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1989), 925-44.
38. This is part of the common lore in anthropology, as described by Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2, especially Chapter 5, 72-99. On apprenticeship in the sciences, see Traweek, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 3. For discussions of apprenticeship more generally, see Lave & Wenger, op. cit. note 10, Chapter 3; Esther N. Goody, 'Learning, Apprenticeship and the Division of Labor', in Michael W. Coy (ed.), Apprenticeship: From Theory to Method and Back Again (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 233-56; or Brigitte Jordan, 'Cosmopolitical Obstetrics: Some Insights from the Training of Traditional Midwives', Social Science in Medicine, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1989), 925-44.
39. There is a great amount of scaffolding arising from collective activity even in the absence of experts, such that in computer clubs, for example, skills can reach levels that are beyond those of any expert in the field: see, for example, Allan Collins, John Seely Brown and Susan Newman, 'Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the Crafts of Reading, Writing, and Mathematics', in Lauren Resnick (ed.), Knowing, Learning and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989), 453-94.
40. Delamont & Atkinson, op. cit. note 2; Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2.
41. Delamont & Atkinson, op. cit. note 2; Delamont, Atkinson & Parry, op. cit. note 2.
42. John Law and Michael Lynch, 'Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity', in Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 267-99, at 294.
43. Richard H.R. Harper and John A. Hughes, '"What a F-ing System! Send 'Em All to the Same Place and then Expect Us to Stop 'Em Hitting": Making Technology Work in Air Traffic Control', in Graham Button (ed.), Technology in Working Order: Studies of Work, Interaction, and Technology (London & New York: Routledge, 1993), 127-44.
44. Such work was exemplified by G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociological Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); see also M. Mulkay and G.N. Gilbert, 'Replication and Mere Replication', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol. 16, No. 1 (1986), 21-37. Delamont & Atkinson (op. cit. note 2) analysed the discourse about enculturation, rather than studying the lived work associated with it.
45. Such work was exemplified by G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociological Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); see also M. Mulkay and G.N. Gilbert, 'Replication and Mere Replication', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol. 16, No. 1 (1986), 21-37. Delamont & Atkinson (op. cit. note 2) analysed the discourse about enculturation, rather than studying the lived work associated with it.
46. Some of the analyses Collins conducted pertain to the way scientists interacted by means of publications: see, for example, H.M. Collins, 'The Meaning of Data: Open and Closed Evidential Cultures in the Search for Gravitational Waves', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 104, No. 2 (September 1998), 293-337. See also Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biologists' Articles', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; G. Myers, Writing Biology: Texts and the Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990). Analyses of historical documents were conducted, for example, by Shapin & Schaffer, op. cit. note 1, and by Gooding, op. cit. note 1.
47. Some of the analyses Collins conducted pertain to the way scientists interacted by means of publications: see, for example, H.M. Collins, 'The Meaning of Data: Open and Closed Evidential Cultures in the Search for Gravitational Waves', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 104, No. 2 (September 1998), 293-337. See also Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biologists' Articles', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; G. Myers, Writing Biology: Texts and the Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990). Analyses of historical documents were conducted, for example, by Shapin & Schaffer, op. cit. note 1, and by Gooding, op. cit. note 1.
48. Some of the analyses Collins conducted pertain to the way scientists interacted by means of publications: see, for example, H.M. Collins, 'The Meaning of Data: Open and Closed Evidential Cultures in the Search for Gravitational Waves', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 104, No. 2 (September 1998), 293-337. See also Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biologists' Articles', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; G. Myers, Writing Biology: Texts and the Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990). Analyses of historical documents were conducted, for example, by Shapin & Schaffer, op. cit. note 1, and by Gooding, op. cit. note 1.
49. Other descriptions of how graduate students manage the uncertainties of fieldwork can be found in Roth & Bowen, op. cit. note 2.
50. To preserve the anonymity of our respondents, 'Anne Yates' is a pseudonym. This is a quotation from her unpublished 1983 Master's thesis, which was submitted at a Canadian University, and investigated the relationship between a Great Blue Heron colony and the vegetation at a specific location in Canada.
51. To make seen but unnoticed, expected background features of everyday practical reasoning visible, Garfinkel proposes 'to start with familiar scenes and ask what can be done to make trouble'. This procedure has come to be known as a 'breaching experiment'. See Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 37.
52. On hoaxes in science see, for example: Trevor Pinch, 'Normal Explanations of the Paranormal: The Demarcation Problem in Fraud and Parapsychology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1979), 329-48; Jim Schnabel, 'Puck in the Laboratory: The Construction and Deconstruction of Hoaxlike Deception in Science', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Autumn 1994), 459-92. The Canadian higher education magazine University Affairs recently carried a feature article on the high frequencies of cheating and academic dishonesty encouraged by a competitive university culture and, as some say, by the laxity of some instructors: see Anne Mullens, 'Cheating to Win [La tricherie, moyen de réussite]', University Affairs, Vol. 41, No. 10 (December 2000), 22-28 (English & French versions).
53. On hoaxes in science see, for example: Trevor Pinch, 'Normal Explanations of the Paranormal: The Demarcation Problem in Fraud and Parapsychology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1979), 329-48; Jim Schnabel, 'Puck in the Laboratory: The Construction and Deconstruction of Hoaxlike Deception in Science', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Autumn 1994), 459-92. The Canadian higher education magazine University Affairs recently carried a feature article on the high frequencies of cheating and academic dishonesty encouraged by a competitive university culture and, as some say, by the laxity of some instructors: see Anne Mullens, 'Cheating to Win [La tricherie, moyen de réussite]', University Affairs, Vol. 41, No. 10 (December 2000), 22-28 (English & French versions).
54. On hoaxes in science see, for example: Trevor Pinch, 'Normal Explanations of the Paranormal: The Demarcation Problem in Fraud and Parapsychology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1979), 329-48; Jim Schnabel, 'Puck in the Laboratory: The Construction and Deconstruction of Hoaxlike Deception in Science', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Autumn 1994), 459-92. The Canadian higher education magazine University Affairs recently carried a feature article on the high frequencies of cheating and academic dishonesty encouraged by a competitive university culture and, as some say, by the laxity of some instructors: see Anne Mullens, 'Cheating to Win [La tricherie, moyen de réussite]', University Affairs, Vol. 41, No. 10 (December 2000), 22-28 (English & French versions).
55. See Traweek, op. cit. note 2, esp. 76-81.
56. See Collins, op. cit. note 21, for a description of different evidential cultures that encourage some scientists to report results of their work which their colleagues, from a different evidential culture, do not want to report for fear of 'reprisals' from the community and funding agencies.
57. Law & Lynch, op. cit. note 17.
58. Long after having done our fieldwork, we dug up the course assignment that Bowen had completed 15 years earlier at the same site. Based on apparent differences between their own and Yates' work, Bowen and his lab partner had raised the possibility that Yates had incorrectly classified trees. Their professor commented on this conjecture by stating: 'Since Yates worked through the leaf season, and is a pretty good botanist, I have to assume she had them [trees] right. Still, I have noted your comments on her data inconsistencies'.
59. Law & Lynch, op. cit. note 17.
60. Ibid., 269.
61. We made these distinctions in a phenomenological study of learning from laboratory inquiries in school science: see Wolff-Michael Roth, Cam McRobbie, Keith B. Lucas and Sylvie Boutonné, 'The Local Production of Order in Traditional Science Laboratories: A Phenomenological Analysis', Learning and Instruction, Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1997), 107-36.
62. Law & Lynch, op. cit. note 17, 269 (emphasis in original).
63. See, for example, Wes Sharrock and Graham Button's discussion of Harold Garfinkel's work on classification: W. Sharrock and G. Button, 'The Social Actor: Social Action in Real Time', in G. Button (ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 137-75, particularly at 150.
64. Traweek, op. cit. note 2, esp. 82-83.
65. Based on the work on constraint satisfaction network by James McClelland and David Rumelhart, and on the application of these networks by Ed Hutchins, one of us (Roth) has articulated ways of modelling interactions with and in the social and materials worlds among children designers: see Wolff-Michael Roth, 'Designing as Distributed Process', Learning and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 2 (June 2001), 211-39; E. Hutchins, 'The Social Organization of Distributed Cognition', in Lauren Resnick and James Levine (eds), Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition (Washington, DC: APA Press), 283-307; J.L. McClelland and D.E. Rumelhart, Explorations in Parallel Distributed Processing: A Handbook of Models, Programs, and Exercises (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988).
66. Based on the work on constraint satisfaction network by James McClelland and David Rumelhart, and on the application of these networks by Ed Hutchins, one of us (Roth) has articulated ways of modelling interactions with and in the social and materials worlds among children designers: see Wolff-Michael Roth, 'Designing as Distributed Process', Learning and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 2 (June 2001), 211-39; E. Hutchins, 'The Social Organization of Distributed Cognition', in Lauren Resnick and James Levine (eds), Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition (Washington, DC: APA Press), 283-307; J.L. McClelland and D.E. Rumelhart, Explorations in Parallel Distributed Processing: A Handbook of Models, Programs, and Exercises (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988).
67. Based on the work on constraint satisfaction network by James McClelland and David Rumelhart, and on the application of these networks by Ed Hutchins, one of us (Roth) has articulated ways of modelling interactions with and in the social and materials worlds among children designers: see Wolff-Michael Roth, 'Designing as Distributed Process', Learning and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 2 (June 2001), 211-39; E. Hutchins, 'The Social Organization of Distributed Cognition', in Lauren Resnick and James Levine (eds), Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition (Washington, DC: APA Press), 283-307; J.L. McClelland and D.E. Rumelhart, Explorations in Parallel Distributed Processing: A Handbook of Models, Programs, and Exercises (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988).
68. Traweek, op. cit. note 2, 76.
69. Collins, op. cit. note 1, 35.
70. The experimenters' regress was discussed by Collins, Changing Order, op. cit. note 1, 79-106; a more popular account is in Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch, The Golem (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), esp. 97-98; and
71. This is the fundamental argument made by Lave & Wenger, op. cit. note 10.
72. See Roth & Bowen, op. cit. note 2.
73. See Traweek, op. cit. note 2, 82.