Political theory and language policy

Political Theory

Volumn 29, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 691-715

  Patten, Alan ^a  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035537728     PISSN: 00905917     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0090591701029005005     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
2. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
3. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
4. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
5. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
6. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
7. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
8. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
9. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
10. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
11. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
12. Notable exceptions include Leslie Green, "Are Language Rights Fundamental?" Osgoode Hall Law Journal 25 (1987): 639-69; Jonathan Pool, "Thinking about Linguistic Discrimination, "Language Problems and Language Planning 11 (1987): 3-21, and "The Official Language Problem, "American Political Science Review 85 (1991): 495-514; Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1991), chaps. 1-2; Denise G. Réaume, "The Group Right to Linguistic Security: Whose Right, What Duties?" in Group Rights, ed. Judith Baker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), and "Official-Language Rights: Intrinsic Value and the Protection of Difference, "in Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jeff Spinner, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), chap. 7; Michael C. Macmillan, The Practice of Language Rights in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), chap. 1; Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000); Pierre Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada (New York: Peter Lang, 1995); Philippe Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian? On Democratic Citizenship in Multilingual Polities, "in The Demands of Citizenship, ed. Iain Hampsher-Monk and Catriona McKinnon (London: Continuum, 2000); and Rainer Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship, Minority Rights and Self-Government, "in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. A. Aleinikoff and D. Klusmeyer (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 2001). Despite these efforts, language policy has been all but ignored in major international journals of political theory. In four such journals - American Political Science Review, Political Theory, Ethics, and Philosophy and Public Affairs - only one article on normative aspects of language issues has been published in the past twenty-five years (Pool, "The Official Language Problem").
13. Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1989), chaps. 7-9; Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), chap. 6; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition, "in Multiculturalism and the "Politics of Recognition, "ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1992] 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), chaps. 6-7.
14. Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1989), chaps. 7-9; Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), chap. 6; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition, "in Multiculturalism and the "Politics of Recognition, "ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1992] 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), chaps. 6-7.
15. Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1989), chaps. 7-9; Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), chap. 6; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition, "in Multiculturalism and the "Politics of Recognition, "ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1992] 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), chaps. 6-7.
16. Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1989), chaps. 7-9; Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), chap. 6; Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition, "in Multiculturalism and the "Politics of Recognition, "ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1992] 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), chaps. 6-7.
17. As it stands, Quebec's Charter of the French Language permits public English-language schooling only to those children having at least one parent educated in English in Canada, it requires that French have marked predominance in all commercial signs, and it requires that French be the language of the workplace for all businesses with more than fifty employees. See Marc V. Levine, La Reconquête de Montréal (Montreal: VLB Editeur, 1997), for an excellent discussion of Quebec's language politics.
18. Bauböck, in "Cultural Citizenship, "calls this "the fact of linguistic establishment." For other statements of this point, see Pool, "The Official Language Problem, "496; Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 111: and Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community, 77-78.
19. Bauböck, in "Cultural Citizenship, "calls this "the fact of linguistic establishment." For other statements of this point, see Pool, "The Official Language Problem, "496; Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 111: and Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community, 77-78.
20. Bauböck, in "Cultural Citizenship, "calls this "the fact of linguistic establishment." For other statements of this point, see Pool, "The Official Language Problem, "496; Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 111: and Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community, 77-78.
21. This term is borrowed from David Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 9-15.
22. For discussions of the immigrant versus host language question, see Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community; Réaume, "Official-Language Rights"; and Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
23. For discussions of the immigrant versus host language question, see Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community; Réaume, "Official-Language Rights"; and Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
24. For discussions of the immigrant versus host language question, see Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community; Réaume, "Official-Language Rights"; and Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
25. Avishai Margalit, The Decent Society (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 158; Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian?"; and Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
26. Avishai Margalit, The Decent Society (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 158; Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian?"; and Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
27. Avishai Margalit, The Decent Society (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 158; Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian?"; and Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
28. Charles Taylor, "Why Do Nations Have to Become States?" in Reconciling the Solitudes: Essays on Canadian Federalism and Nationalism (Montreal: McGill-Queen University Press, 1993), and "The Politics of Recognition."
29. There is a parallel here with an argument that is sometimes made in discussions of political equality. One important argument for an equal, universal suffrage maintains that the denial of full and equal suffrage to some citizens amounts to an insult and badge of inferiority; Charles R. Beitz, Political Equality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 110; Ronald Dworkin, Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 200-1. Although there is a possible world in which people do not attach symbolic significance to the suffrage, it is a salient social fact - relevant to institutional design - that in our world they do.
30. There is a parallel here with an argument that is sometimes made in discussions of political equality. One important argument for an equal, universal suffrage maintains that the denial of full and equal suffrage to some citizens amounts to an insult and badge of inferiority; Charles R. Beitz, Political Equality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 110; Ronald Dworkin, Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 200-1. Although there is a possible world in which people do not attach symbolic significance to the suffrage, it is a salient social fact - relevant to institutional design -that in our world they do.
31. John Edwards, Language, Society and Identity (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1985); Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chaps. 1-2; Coulombe, Language Rights; Macmillan, Practice of Language Rights; and Réaume, "Official-Language Rights."
32. John Edwards, Language, Society and Identity (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1985); Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chaps. 1-2; Coulombe, Language Rights; Macmillan, Practice of Language Rights; and Réaume, "Official-Language Rights."
33. John Edwards, Language, Society and Identity (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1985); Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chaps. 1-2; Coulombe, Language Rights; Macmillan, Practice of Language Rights; and Réaume, "Official-Language Rights."
34. John Edwards, Language, Society and Identity (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1985); Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chaps. 1-2; Coulombe, Language Rights; Macmillan, Practice of Language Rights; and Réaume, "Official-Language Rights."
35. Taylor ("The Politics of Recognition, "40 n16, 52-53, 58-59) emphasizes the desire for cultural survival.
36. Réaume, "Official-Language Rights, "246-52; Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
37. Réaume, "Official-Language Rights, "246-52; Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
38. Ronald Dworkin, "What Is Equality? Part I: Equality of Welfare, "Philosophy and Public Affairs 10 (1981): 185-246; G. A. Cohen, "On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice, "Ethics 99 (1989): 906-44; and Amartya Sen, Inequality Reexamined (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
39. Ronald Dworkin, "What Is Equality? Part I: Equality of Welfare, "Philosophy and Public Affairs 10 (1981): 185-246; G. A. Cohen, "On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice, "Ethics 99 (1989): 906-44; and Amartya Sen, Inequality Reexamined (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
40. Ronald Dworkin, "What Is Equality? Part I: Equality of Welfare, "Philosophy and Public Affairs 10 (1981): 185-246; G. A. Cohen, "On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice, "Ethics 99 (1989): 906-44; and Amartya Sen, Inequality Reexamined (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
41. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971).
42. Ronald Dworkin, "Liberalism, "in Public and Private Morality, ed. Stuart Hampshire (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 113-43 at 129. See also Ronald Dworkin, "What Is Equality? Part II: Equality of Resources, "Philosophy and Public Affairs 10 (1981): 283-345, for a more elaborate account of "equality of resources, "
43. Ronald Dworkin, "Liberalism, "in Public and Private Morality, ed. Stuart Hampshire (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 113-43 at 129. See also Ronald Dworkin, "What Is Equality? Part II: Equality of Resources, "Philosophy and Public Affairs 10 (1981): 283-345, for a more elaborate account of "equality of resources, "
44. In this paragraph, I have been ignoring an important complication that deserves more attention than I am able to give it in this essay. Liberals value equal treatment of individuals, and it is not clear to what extent and under what conditions this is equivalent to equal treatment of languages. To establish equality of treatment between individuals who speak different languages, I take it that public institutions would need to devote the same per capita level of resources to the provision of public services in each of those languages. Where there are significant economies of scale in the provision of public services in a particular language, equivalent services cannot be provided in less widely spoken languages without departing from this norm of equal treatment of individuals. In my view, equality between individuals should be the guiding principle in these cases, and this can justify departures from strict equality between languages. For instance, it is legitimate for a language regime to make recognition of less widely spoken languages regionally specific (e.g., by adopting a "where numbers warrant" condition) or to restrict recognition of those languages in other ways (e.g., offering primary health care in those languages but not the full range of specialist care). However one deals with these complications, equality of treatment is still quite distinct from the language rationalization and language maintenance approaches to language policy.
45. A program of promoting convergence might also involve restrictions on individual linguistic autonomy; indeed, such restrictions might be necessary if the program is to be successful. As I indicated at the start of this essay, to focus attention on the problem of recognition, I shall assume that there are no such restrictions on individual autonomy.
46. John Stuart Mill, "Considerations on Representative Government, "in On Liberty and Other Essays (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 16; Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian?"
47. John Stuart Mill, "Considerations on Representative Government, "in On Liberty and Other Essays (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 16; Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian?"
48. Mill, "Considerations, "chap. 16; David Miller, On Nationality (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1995), 90-98; Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, chap. 9.
49. Mill, "Considerations, "chap. 16; David Miller, On Nationality (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1995), 90-98; Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, chap. 9.
50. Mill, "Considerations, "chap. 16; David Miller, On Nationality (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1995), 90-98; Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, chap. 9.
51. This concern is frequently raised in discussions of language policy in European institutions. See, for example, David Laitin, "The Cultural Identities of a European State, "Politics and Society 25 (1997): 227-302; Peter A. Kraus, "Political Unity and Linguistic Diversity in Europe, "Archives Européennes de Sociologie/European Journal of Sociology 41 (2000): 138-63.
52. This concern is frequently raised in discussions of language policy in European institutions. See, for example, David Laitin, "The Cultural Identities of a European State, "Politics and Society 25 (1997): 227-302; Peter A. Kraus, "Political Unity and Linguistic Diversity in Europe, "Archives Européennes de Sociologie/European Journal of Sociology 41 (2000): 138-63.
53. See Ronald Schmidt, Jr., Language Policy and Identity Politics in the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), for an excellent overview of this debate.
54. Of course, in the U.S. context, these programs typically aim at promoting eventual success in Anglo-stream society. My point is that this goal of promoting convergence may be better achieved by opting for policies involving more recognition of the minority language rather than less.
55. Young, Justice, 179; Réaume, "Official-Language Rights, "260-61, 270-71.
56. Young, Justice, 179; Réaume, "Official-Language Rights, "260-61, 270-71.
57. For good discussions, see, for example, Jean Laponce, Langue et Territoire (Quebec: Presse Universitaires de Laval, 1984); Edwards, Language, Society and Identity; Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chap. 3; Spinner, Boundaries, chap. 7; and David Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near-Abroad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
58. For good discussions, see, for example, Jean Laponce, Langue et Territoire (Quebec: Presse Universitaires de Laval, 1984); Edwards, Language, Society and Identity; Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chap. 3; Spinner, Boundaries, chap. 7; and David Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near-Abroad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
59. For good discussions, see, for example, Jean Laponce, Langue et Territoire (Quebec: Presse Universitaires de Laval, 1984); Edwards, Language, Society and Identity; Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chap. 3; Spinner, Boundaries, chap. 7; and David Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near-Abroad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
60. For good discussions, see, for example, Jean Laponce, Langue et Territoire (Quebec: Presse Universitaires de Laval, 1984); Edwards, Language, Society and Identity; Fishman, Reversing Language Shift, chap. 3; Spinner, Boundaries, chap. 7; and David Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near-Abroad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
61. Irish is a good example of a publicly recognized language that would be hard to call a success story. See Edwards, Language, Society and Identity, 53-65.
62. Many commentators take this to be a decisive objection to official multilingualism schemes (or at least to those that do not involve unilingual territories within a multilingual state). For a strong statement of this view, see Laponce, Langue et Territoire. Following Laponce, Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian?" has argued that official bilingualism and enforced monolingualism are, in effect, two different forms of the same policy - with both leading to the ascendancy of one language and the gradual disappearance of all others. It is worth stressing that there is one important difference between the two approaches to language policy: unlike enforced unilingualism, official multilingualism gives expression to an ideal of equality (what I have termed equality of treatment) that has appeal independently of whether the different languages involved enjoy equal success.
63. Many commentators take this to be a decisive objection to official multilingualism schemes (or at least to those that do not involve unilingual territories within a multilingual state). For a strong statement of this view, see Laponce, Langue et Territoire. Following Laponce, Van Parijs, "Must Europe Be Belgian?" has argued that official bilingualism and enforced monolingualism are, in effect, two different forms of the same policy - with both leading to the ascendancy of one language and the gradual disappearance of all others. It is worth stressing that there is one important difference between the two approaches to language policy: unlike enforced unilingualism, official multilingualism gives expression to an ideal of equality (what I have termed equality of treatment) that has appeal independently of whether the different languages involved enjoy equal success.
64. Green ("Are Language Rights Fundamental?" 653) suggests that ensuring language survival is "the implicit value assumption of nearly every linguistic demographer and sociolinguist who has written on [language rights]."
65. As with language rationalization, unequal recognition may not be sufficient to achieve the goals of language maintainers; restrictions on individual linguistic autonomy might be necessary as well. I assume that no such restrictions are imposed in order to consider language maintenance in its most moderate and appealing form. It is worth remembering, however, that language maintainers may face a dilemma between achieving their goal of language success and avoiding the use of coercive policy instruments.
66. Kymlicka, Liberalism, chaps. 7-9, and Multicultural Citizenship, chaps. 5-6.
67. Kymlicka, Liberalism, chaps. 7-9, and Multicultural Citizenship, chaps. 5-6.
68. The argument of this paragraph, including the Welsh example, is elaborated further in my "The Autonomy Argument for Liberal Nationalism, "Nations and Nationalism 5 (1999): 1-17.
69. For this view of equality, see Dworkin, "What Is Equality? Part I." Several readers have objected to me that there are important differences between language and religion. In general, I do not dispute this assertion. But a connection with identity is something that language and religion do share in common. Because there are important differences between the two, it is problematic to defend language maintenance by appealing to identity considerations (rather than the "context of choice" considerations sketched above). A more specific version of the objection, however, worries that the analogy is flawed because religion, unlike language, is a matter of belief, and the liberal state has no business sustaining a belief. I suspect that this difference between religion and language may be less categorical than the objection assumes. On one hand, language does involve an element of belief: it is a commonplace of linguistics, after all, that language conditions the way we understand the world. On the other hand, religion clearly involves a set of practices, and the liberal's intuitions about state activities to sustain a religion are arguably just as strong about this practice dimension. Imagine, for instance, that the performance of some religious ritual requires the presence of a minimum number of people (who may or may not be sincere believers). It is not clear that the liberal state has any more business sustaining the religious community at this minimum size than it does in sustaining a belief. I am grateful to Jerry Cohen and Jacob Levy for discussion of this objection.
70. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, defends an immigrant-host culture dichotomy with an argument grounded in voluntariness. For critical discussion of this and other defenses of the dichotomy, see Daniel M. Weinstock, "Le problême de la boite de Pandore, "in Nationalité, citoyenneté et solidarité, ed. Michel Seymour (Montréal: Liber, 1999), 17-40; Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community; Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
71. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, defends an immigrant-host culture dichotomy with an argument grounded in voluntariness. For critical discussion of this and other defenses of the dichotomy, see Daniel M. Weinstock, "Le problême de la boite de Pandore, "in Nationalité, citoyenneté et solidarité, ed. Michel Seymour (Montréal: Liber, 1999), 17-40; Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community; Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
72. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, defends an immigrant-host culture dichotomy with an argument grounded in voluntariness. For critical discussion of this and other defenses of the dichotomy, see Daniel M. Weinstock, "Le problême de la boite de Pandore, "in Nationalité, citoyenneté et solidarité, ed. Michel Seymour (Montréal: Liber, 1999), 17-40; Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community; Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."
73. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, defends an immigrant-host culture dichotomy with an argument grounded in voluntariness. For critical discussion of this and other defenses of the dichotomy, see Daniel M. Weinstock, "Le problême de la boite de Pandore, "in Nationalité, citoyenneté et solidarité, ed. Michel Seymour (Montréal: Liber, 1999), 17-40; Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community; Bauböck, "Cultural Citizenship."