Globalization and the paradox of participation: The Chinese case

Global Governance

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 173-196

  Solinger, Dorothy J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035534269     PISSN: 10752846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/19426720-00702006     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. For a small but critical segment of the literature on globalization in recent years, see Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); James H. Mittelman, ed., Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1996); William Greider, One World Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); Philip Gummett, ed., Globalization and Public Policy (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 1996); Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1997); and David A. Smith and Jozsef Borocz, eds., A New World Order? Global Transformations in the Late Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995).
2. For a small but critical segment of the literature on globalization in recent years, see Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); James H. Mittelman, ed., Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1996); William Greider, One World Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); Philip Gummett, ed., Globalization and Public Policy (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 1996); Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1997); and David A. Smith and Jozsef Borocz, eds., A New World Order? Global Transformations in the Late Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995).
3. For a small but critical segment of the literature on globalization in recent years, see Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); James H. Mittelman, ed., Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1996); William Greider, One World Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); Philip Gummett, ed., Globalization and Public Policy (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 1996); Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1997); and David A. Smith and Jozsef Borocz, eds., A New World Order? Global Transformations in the Late Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995).
4. For a small but critical segment of the literature on globalization in recent years, see Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); James H. Mittelman, ed., Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1996); William Greider, One World Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); Philip Gummett, ed., Globalization and Public Policy (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 1996); Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1997); and David A. Smith and Jozsef Borocz, eds., A New World Order? Global Transformations in the Late Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995).
5. For a small but critical segment of the literature on globalization in recent years, see Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); James H. Mittelman, ed., Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1996); William Greider, One World Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); Philip Gummett, ed., Globalization and Public Policy (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 1996); Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1997); and David A. Smith and Jozsef Borocz, eds., A New World Order? Global Transformations in the Late Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995).
6. For a small but critical segment of the literature on globalization in recent years, see Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); James H. Mittelman, ed., Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1996); William Greider, One World Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); Philip Gummett, ed., Globalization and Public Policy (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 1996); Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1997); and David A. Smith and Jozsef Borocz, eds., A New World Order? Global Transformations in the Late Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995).
7. Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 3, 12.
8. James F. Hollifield, Immigrants, Markets, and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 170, 216; a similar argument is made in Wayne A. Cornelius, Philip L. Martin, and James F. Hollifield, "Introduction: The Ambivalent Quest for Immigration Control," in Cornelius, Martin, and Hollifield, eds., Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp. 3-41.
9. James F. Hollifield, Immigrants, Markets, and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 170, 216; a similar argument is made in Wayne A. Cornelius, Philip L. Martin, and James F. Hollifield, "Introduction: The Ambivalent Quest for Immigration Control," in Cornelius, Martin, and Hollifield, eds., Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp. 3-41.
10. David Jacobson, "New Border Customs: Migration and the Changing Role of the State," UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs 3, no. 2 (fall-winter 1998/99): 453; David Jacobson, Rights Across Borders: Immigration and the Decline of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
11. David Jacobson, "New Border Customs: Migration and the Changing Role of the State," UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs 3, no. 2 (fall-winter 1998/99): 453; David Jacobson, Rights Across Borders: Immigration and the Decline of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
12. On Mexico's eagerness for "membership in the rich countries' club," see Gustavo V. del Castillo, "NAFTA and the Struggle for Neoliberalism: Mexico's Elusive Quest for First World Status," in Gerardo Otero, ed., Neoliberalism Revisited: Economic Restructuring and Mexico's Political Future (Boulder: Westview, 1996), p. 28; and James F. Rochlin, Redefining Mexican "Security" (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997), pp. 64, 179.
13. On Mexico's eagerness for "membership in the rich countries' club," see Gustavo V. del Castillo, "NAFTA and the Struggle for Neoliberalism: Mexico's Elusive Quest for First World Status," in Gerardo Otero, ed., Neoliberalism Revisited: Economic Restructuring and Mexico's Political Future (Boulder: Westview, 1996), p. 28; and James F. Rochlin, Redefining Mexican "Security" (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997), pp. 64, 179.
14. Richard Jackman, "The Impact of the European Union on Unemployment and Unemployment Policy," in David Hine and Hussein Kassim, Beyond the Market: The EU and National Social Policy (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 69;
15. Bernard H. Moss, "After the Auroux Laws: Employers, Industrial Relations and the Right in France," West European Politics 11, no. 1 (January 1988): 71;
16. and Anthony Daley, "The Steel Crisis and Labor Politics in France and the United States," in Miriam Golden and Jonas Pontusson, eds., Bargaining for Change: Union Politics in North America and Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), p. 175.
17. On the pressures on Mexico in 1982 and thereafter, see Peter Morici, "Grasping the Benefits of NAFTA, CH 2 (1993): 49; Judith A. Teichman, Privatization and Political Change in Mexico (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 70; Ruth Berins Collier, The Contradictory Alliance: State-Labor Relations and Regime Change in Mexico, Research Series No. 83 (Berkeley: International and Area Studies, University of California, 1992), chap. 5; for pressures on France beginning in the mid-1970s and intensifying by the early 1980s, see W. Rand Smith, "Unemployment and the Left Coalition in France and Spain," in Nancy Bermeo, ed., "Unemployment in Southern Europe: Coping with the Consequences," forthcoming manuscript; Jonah D. Levy, "France: Directing Adjustment," paper presented to the international research project "The Adjustment of National Employment Policy and Social Policy to Internationalization," Ringberg Castle, Germany, 17-20 February 1999; Robert Boyer, "Wage Labor, Capital Accumulation, and the Crisis, 1968-82," in Mark Kesselman, ed., with the assistance of Guy Groux, The French Workers' Movement: Economic Crisis and Political Change (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984), pp. 17-38.
18. On the pressures on Mexico in 1982 and thereafter, see Peter Morici, "Grasping the Benefits of NAFTA, CH 2 (1993): 49; Judith A. Teichman, Privatization and Political Change in Mexico (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 70; Ruth Berins Collier, The Contradictory Alliance: State-Labor Relations and Regime Change in Mexico, Research Series No. 83 (Berkeley: International and Area Studies, University of California, 1992), chap. 5; for pressures on France beginning in the mid-1970s and intensifying by the early 1980s, see W. Rand Smith, "Unemployment and the Left Coalition in France and Spain," in Nancy Bermeo, ed., "Unemployment in Southern Europe: Coping with the Consequences," forthcoming manuscript; Jonah D. Levy, "France: Directing Adjustment," paper presented to the international research project "The Adjustment of National Employment Policy and Social Policy to Internationalization," Ringberg Castle, Germany, 17-20 February 1999; Robert Boyer, "Wage Labor, Capital Accumulation, and the Crisis, 1968-82," in Mark Kesselman, ed., with the assistance of Guy Groux, The French Workers' Movement: Economic Crisis and Political Change (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984), pp. 17-38.
19. On the pressures on Mexico in 1982 and thereafter, see Peter Morici, "Grasping the Benefits of NAFTA, CH 2 (1993): 49; Judith A. Teichman, Privatization and Political Change in Mexico (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 70; Ruth Berins Collier, The Contradictory Alliance: State-Labor Relations and Regime Change in Mexico, Research Series No. 83 (Berkeley: International and Area Studies, University of California, 1992), chap. 5; for pressures on France beginning in the mid-1970s and intensifying by the early 1980s, see W. Rand Smith, "Unemployment and the Left Coalition in France and Spain," in Nancy Bermeo, ed., "Unemployment in Southern Europe: Coping with the Consequences," forthcoming manuscript; Jonah D. Levy, "France: Directing Adjustment," paper presented to the international research project "The Adjustment of National Employment Policy and Social Policy to Internationalization," Ringberg Castle, Germany, 17-20 February 1999; Robert Boyer, "Wage Labor, Capital Accumulation, and the Crisis, 1968-82," in Mark Kesselman, ed., with the assistance of Guy Groux, The French Workers' Movement: Economic Crisis and Political Change (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984), pp. 17-38.
20. On the pressures on Mexico in 1982 and thereafter, see Peter Morici, "Grasping the Benefits of NAFTA, CH 2 (1993): 49; Judith A. Teichman, Privatization and Political Change in Mexico (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 70; Ruth Berins Collier, The Contradictory Alliance: State-Labor Relations and Regime Change in Mexico, Research Series No. 83 (Berkeley: International and Area Studies, University of California, 1992), chap. 5; for pressures on France beginning in the mid-1970s and intensifying by the early 1980s, see W. Rand Smith, "Unemployment and the Left Coalition in France and Spain," in Nancy Bermeo, ed., "Unemployment in Southern Europe: Coping with the Consequences," forthcoming manuscript; Jonah D. Levy, "France: Directing Adjustment," paper presented to the international research project "The Adjustment of National Employment Policy and Social Policy to Internationalization," Ringberg Castle, Germany, 17-20 February 1999; Robert Boyer, "Wage Labor, Capital Accumulation, and the Crisis, 1968-82," in Mark Kesselman, ed., with the assistance of Guy Groux, The French Workers' Movement: Economic Crisis and Political Change (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984), pp. 17-38.
21. On the pressures on Mexico in 1982 and thereafter, see Peter Morici, "Grasping the Benefits of NAFTA, CH 2 (1993): 49; Judith A. Teichman, Privatization and Political Change in Mexico (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 70; Ruth Berins Collier, The Contradictory Alliance: State-Labor Relations and Regime Change in Mexico, Research Series No. 83 (Berkeley: International and Area Studies, University of California, 1992), chap. 5; for pressures on France beginning in the mid-1970s and intensifying by the early 1980s, see W. Rand Smith, "Unemployment and the Left Coalition in France and Spain," in Nancy Bermeo, ed., "Unemployment in Southern Europe: Coping with the Consequences," forthcoming manuscript; Jonah D. Levy, "France: Directing Adjustment," paper presented to the international research project "The Adjustment of National Employment Policy and Social Policy to Internationalization," Ringberg Castle, Germany, 17-20 February 1999; Robert Boyer, "Wage Labor, Capital Accumulation, and the Crisis, 1968-82," in Mark Kesselman, ed., with the assistance of Guy Groux, The French Workers' Movement: Economic Crisis and Political Change (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984), pp. 17-38.
22. On the pressures on Mexico in 1982 and thereafter, see Peter Morici, "Grasping the Benefits of NAFTA, CH 2 (1993): 49; Judith A. Teichman, Privatization and Political Change in Mexico (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 70; Ruth Berins Collier, The Contradictory Alliance: State-Labor Relations and Regime Change in Mexico, Research Series No. 83 (Berkeley: International and Area Studies, University of California, 1992), chap. 5; for pressures on France beginning in the mid-1970s and intensifying by the early 1980s, see W. Rand Smith, "Unemployment and the Left Coalition in France and Spain," in Nancy Bermeo, ed., "Unemployment in Southern Europe: Coping with the Consequences," forthcoming manuscript; Jonah D. Levy, "France: Directing Adjustment," paper presented to the international research project "The Adjustment of National Employment Policy and Social Policy to Internationalization," Ringberg Castle, Germany, 17-20 February 1999; Robert Boyer, "Wage Labor, Capital Accumulation, and the Crisis, 1968-82," in Mark Kesselman, ed., with the assistance of Guy Groux, The French Workers' Movement: Economic Crisis and Political Change (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984), pp. 17-38.
23. In September 1997, at the Chinese Communist Party's fifteenth congress, a program calling for these measures was announced and the results were immediate. For coverage and official statements, see SWB 31 FE/3023 (13 September 1997), S1/1, from Chinese Central Television (12 September 1997), and SWB FE/3024 (15 September 1997), S2/18, from XH (14 September 1997). But the reforms enunciated then were in the works months before the Asian financial crisis broke and so were not a result of it. At a January 1997 State Council National Work Conference on State Enterprise Staff and Workers' Reemployment, attendees were told that solving their firms' difficulties depended on initiating enterprise reform, transforming systems, cutting staff, normalizing bankruptcies, and encouraging mergers. See Yang Yiyong et al., Shiye chongli bo (the shock wave of unemployment) (Beijing: Jinri zhongguo chubanshe, 1997), p. 220.
24. Vivien A. Schmidt, "Democracy at Risk? France, Great Britain and Germany Between Globalization and Europeanization," in David A. Smith, Dorothy J. Solinger, and Steven Topik, States and Sovereignty in the Global Economy (London: Routledge, 1999); Leo Panitch, "Rethinking the Role of the State," in Mittelman, Globalization, pp. 83-84; Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, "Introduction," in Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, States Against Markets: The Limits of Globalization (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 1-27; and Ramesh Mishra, "The Welfare of Nations," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 316.
25. Vivien A. Schmidt, "Democracy at Risk? France, Great Britain and Germany Between Globalization and Europeanization," in David A. Smith, Dorothy J. Solinger, and Steven Topik, States and Sovereignty in the Global Economy (London: Routledge, 1999); Leo Panitch, "Rethinking the Role of the State," in Mittelman, Globalization, pp. 83-84; Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, "Introduction," in Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, States Against Markets: The Limits of Globalization (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 1-27; and Ramesh Mishra, "The Welfare of Nations," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 316.
26. Vivien A. Schmidt, "Democracy at Risk? France, Great Britain and Germany Between Globalization and Europeanization," in David A. Smith, Dorothy J. Solinger, and Steven Topik, States and Sovereignty in the Global Economy (London: Routledge, 1999); Leo Panitch, "Rethinking the Role of the State," in Mittelman, Globalization, pp. 83-84; Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, "Introduction," in Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, States Against Markets: The Limits of Globalization (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 1-27; and Ramesh Mishra, "The Welfare of Nations," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 316.
27. Vivien A. Schmidt, "Democracy at Risk? France, Great Britain and Germany Between Globalization and Europeanization," in David A. Smith, Dorothy J. Solinger, and Steven Topik, States and Sovereignty in the Global Economy (London: Routledge, 1999); Leo Panitch, "Rethinking the Role of the State," in Mittelman, Globalization, pp. 83-84; Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, "Introduction," in Robert Boyer and Daniel Drache, States Against Markets: The Limits of Globalization (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 1-27; and Ramesh Mishra, "The Welfare of Nations," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 316.
28. John Eatwell, "Unemployment on a World Scale," in John Eatwell, ed., Global Unemployment: Loss of Jobs in the 1990s (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 3-20; Robert Boyer, "State and Market: A New Engagement for the Twenty-First Century?" in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 91.
29. John Eatwell, "Unemployment on a World Scale," in John Eatwell, ed., Global Unemployment: Loss of Jobs in the 1990s (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 3-20; Robert Boyer, "State and Market: A New Engagement for the Twenty-First Century?" in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 91.
30. Valerie Symes, Unemployment in Europe: Problems and Policies (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 4-5.
31. Robert Boyer, "Wage/Labour Relations, Growth, and Crisis: A Hidden Dialectic," in Boyer, ed., The Search for Labour Market Flexibility: The European Economies in Transition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), p. 21; Harold Chorney, "Debts, Deficits and Full Employment," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 363; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 3.
32. Robert Boyer, "Wage/Labour Relations, Growth, and Crisis: A Hidden Dialectic," in Boyer, ed., The Search for Labour Market Flexibility: The European Economies in Transition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), p. 21; Harold Chorney, "Debts, Deficits and Full Employment," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 363; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 3.
33. Robert Boyer, "Wage/Labour Relations, Growth, and Crisis: A Hidden Dialectic," in Boyer, ed., The Search for Labour Market Flexibility: The European Economies in Transition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), p. 21; Harold Chorney, "Debts, Deficits and Full Employment," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 363; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 3.
34. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 19, 20; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 85.
35. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 19, 20; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 85.
36. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
37. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
38. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
39. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
40. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
41. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
42. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
43. Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," pp. 1, 7-9, 19; Daniel Drache, "From Keynes to K-Mart: Competitiveness in a Corporate Age," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, pp. 32, 42-43, 47-49; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 45, 21; Eatwell, "Unemployment," p. 4; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 87; Boyer, "Wage/Labour," p. 21; Pascal Petit, "Problems of the State in Dealing with the System of Wage/Labour Relations: The Case of France," in Boyer, The Search, p. 49; Guy Standing, "Labor Insecurity Through Market Regulation: Legacy of the 1980s, Challenge for the 1990s," in Katherine McFate et al., Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 153, 164.
44. Saskia Sassen, The Mobility of Labor and Capital (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 22-27; Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 7; Paul Krugman, "First, Do No Harm," Foreign Affairs 75, no. 4 (July-August 1996): 166.
45. Saskia Sassen, The Mobility of Labor and Capital (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 22-27; Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 7; Paul Krugman, "First, Do No Harm," Foreign Affairs 75, no. 4 (July-August 1996): 166.
46. Saskia Sassen, The Mobility of Labor and Capital (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 22-27; Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 7; Paul Krugman, "First, Do No Harm," Foreign Affairs 75, no. 4 (July-August 1996): 166.
47. Saskia Sassen, The Mobility of Labor and Capital (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 22-27; Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 7; Paul Krugman, "First, Do No Harm," Foreign Affairs 75, no. 4 (July-August 1996): 166.
48. Standing, "Labor Insecurity, pp. 153, 157, 163-68; Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," p. 18; Katherine McFate, "Western States in the New World Order," in McFate et al., Poverty, pp. 7-8; Boyer, "Growth and Crisis," p. 25; Petit, "Problems," p. 49; Robert Boyer, "Division or Unity? Decline or Recovery?" in Boyer, The Search, p. 212.
49. Standing, "Labor Insecurity, pp. 153, 157, 163-68; Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," p. 18; Katherine McFate, "Western States in the New World Order," in McFate et al., Poverty, pp. 7-8; Boyer, "Growth and Crisis," p. 25; Petit, "Problems," p. 49; Robert Boyer, "Division or Unity? Decline or Recovery?" in Boyer, The Search, p. 212.
50. Standing, "Labor Insecurity, pp. 153, 157, 163-68; Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," p. 18; Katherine McFate, "Western States in the New World Order," in McFate et al., Poverty, pp. 7-8; Boyer, "Growth and Crisis," p. 25; Petit, "Problems," p. 49; Robert Boyer, "Division or Unity? Decline or Recovery?" in Boyer, The Search, p. 212.
51. Standing, "Labor Insecurity, pp. 153, 157, 163-68; Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," p. 18; Katherine McFate, "Western States in the New World Order," in McFate et al., Poverty, pp. 7-8; Boyer, "Growth and Crisis," p. 25; Petit, "Problems," p. 49; Robert Boyer, "Division or Unity? Decline or Recovery?" in Boyer, The Search, p. 212.
52. Standing, "Labor Insecurity, pp. 153, 157, 163-68; Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," p. 18; Katherine McFate, "Western States in the New World Order," in McFate et al., Poverty, pp. 7-8; Boyer, "Growth and Crisis," p. 25; Petit, "Problems," p. 49; Robert Boyer, "Division or Unity? Decline or Recovery?" in Boyer, The Search, p. 212.
53. Standing, "Labor Insecurity, pp. 153, 157, 163-68; Boyer and Drache, "Introduction," p. 18; Katherine McFate, "Western States in the New World Order," in McFate et al., Poverty, pp. 7-8; Boyer, "Growth and Crisis," p. 25; Petit, "Problems," p. 49; Robert Boyer, "Division or Unity? Decline or Recovery?" in Boyer, The Search, p. 212.
54. On this, see Hollifield, Immigrants; Ian Gordon, "The Impact of Economic Change on Minorities and Migrants in Western Europe," in McFate et al., Poverty, p. 525.
55. On this, see Hollifield, Immigrants; Ian Gordon, "The Impact of Economic Change on Minorities and Migrants in Western Europe," in McFate et al., Poverty, p. 525.
56. Jacobsen, Rights Across Borders; Soysal, Limits of Citizenship; Hollifield, Immigrants.
57. Jacobsen, Rights Across Borders; Soysal, Limits of Citizenship; Hollifield, Immigrants.
58. Jacobsen, Rights Across Borders; Soysal, Limits of Citizenship; Hollifield, Immigrants.
59. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 153; Gordon Betcherman, "Globalization, Labor Markets and Public Policy," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 255; Drache, "From Keynes," p. 31.
60. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 153; Gordon Betcherman, "Globalization, Labor Markets and Public Policy," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 255; Drache, "From Keynes," p. 31.
61. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 153; Gordon Betcherman, "Globalization, Labor Markets and Public Policy," in Boyer and Drache, States Against Markets, p. 255; Drache, "From Keynes," p. 31.
62. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 4-5; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 91. By 1994, the numbers of the unemployed in OECD countries had risen from just over 10 million in 1974 to 35 million, according to Chorney, "Debts, Deficits," p. 373; by 1994, it could be said that unemployment within European Union member nations had risen "more or less continuously" for fifteen years (Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 1).
63. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 4-5; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 91. By 1994, the numbers of the unemployed in OECD countries had risen from just over 10 million in 1974 to 35 million, according to Chorney, "Debts, Deficits," p. 373; by 1994, it could be said that unemployment within European Union member nations had risen "more or less continuously" for fifteen years (Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 1).
64. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 4-5; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 91. By 1994, the numbers of the unemployed in OECD countries had risen from just over 10 million in 1974 to 35 million, according to Chorney, "Debts, Deficits," p. 373; by 1994, it could be said that unemployment within European Union member nations had risen "more or less continuously" for fifteen years (Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 1).
65. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 4-5; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 91. By 1994, the numbers of the unemployed in OECD countries had risen from just over 10 million in 1974 to 35 million, according to Chorney, "Debts, Deficits," p. 373; by 1994, it could be said that unemployment within European Union member nations had risen "more or less continuously" for fifteen years (Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 1).
66. Standing, "Labor Insecurity," p. 164; Symes, Unemployment in Europe, pp. 4-5; Boyer, "State and Market," p. 91. By 1994, the numbers of the unemployed in OECD countries had risen from just over 10 million in 1974 to 35 million, according to Chorney, "Debts, Deficits," p. 373; by 1994, it could be said that unemployment within European Union member nations had risen "more or less continuously" for fifteen years (Symes, Unemployment in Europe, p. 1).
67. See Sassen, The Mobility of Capital, pp. 39, 47.
68. McFate, "Western States," p. 14, speaks of the minorities who are forced into informal or illegal sectors of the economy by poor market conditions and discrimination as being "viewed as outside the boundaries of the political/moral community." Gordon, "The Impact," pp. 521, 525, notes a "continuing perception that particular ethnic groups [in particular, the descendants of postwar labor migrants, who are seen as outsiders'] do not 'belong' and may appropriately be treated differently." Craig R. Whitney, "French Jobless Find the World is Harsher," New York Times, 19 March 1998, A6, states that "many of the longterm unemployed feel excluded,' a word that in French means being outside normal society and carries the connotation of alienation and poverty." See also Thomas Faist and Hartmut Häubermann, "Immigration, Social Citizenship and Housing in Germany," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 20, no.1 (1996): 83-98, on the denial of welfare rights to migrants in Western Europe and North America since the mid-1970s.
69. McFate, "Western States," p. 14, speaks of the minorities who are forced into informal or illegal sectors of the economy by poor market conditions and discrimination as being "viewed as outside the boundaries of the political/moral community." Gordon, "The Impact," pp. 521, 525, notes a "continuing perception that particular ethnic groups [in particular, the descendants of postwar labor migrants, who are seen as outsiders'] do not 'belong' and may appropriately be treated differently." Craig R. Whitney, "French Jobless Find the World is Harsher," New York Times, 19 March 1998, A6, states that "many of the longterm unemployed feel excluded,' a word that in French means being outside normal society and carries the connotation of alienation and poverty." See also Thomas Faist and Hartmut Häubermann, "Immigration, Social Citizenship and Housing in Germany," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 20, no.1 (1996): 83-98, on the denial of welfare rights to migrants in Western Europe and North America since the mid-1970s.
70. McFate, "Western States," p. 14, speaks of the minorities who are forced into informal or illegal sectors of the economy by poor market conditions and discrimination as being "viewed as outside the boundaries of the political/moral community." Gordon, "The Impact," pp. 521, 525, notes a "continuing perception that particular ethnic groups [in particular, the descendants of postwar labor migrants, who are seen as outsiders'] do not 'belong' and may appropriately be treated differently." Craig R. Whitney, "French Jobless Find the World is Harsher," New York Times, 19 March 1998, A6, states that "many of the longterm unemployed feel excluded,' a word that in French means being outside normal society and carries the connotation of alienation and poverty." See also Thomas Faist and Hartmut Häubermann, "Immigration, Social Citizenship and Housing in Germany," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 20, no.1 (1996): 83-98, on the denial of welfare rights to migrants in Western Europe and North America since the mid-1970s.
71. McFate, "Western States," p. 14, speaks of the minorities who are forced into informal or illegal sectors of the economy by poor market conditions and discrimination as being "viewed as outside the boundaries of the political/moral community." Gordon, "The Impact," pp. 521, 525, notes a "continuing perception that particular ethnic groups [in particular, the descendants of postwar labor migrants, who are seen as outsiders'] do not 'belong' and may appropriately be treated differently." Craig R. Whitney, "French Jobless Find the World is Harsher," New York Times, 19 March 1998, A6, states that "many of the longterm unemployed feel excluded,' a word that in French means being outside normal society and carries the connotation of alienation and poverty." See also Thomas Faist and Hartmut Häubermann, "Immigration, Social Citizenship and Housing in Germany," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 20, no.1 (1996): 83-98, on the denial of welfare rights to migrants in Western Europe and North America since the mid-1970s.
72. T. H. Marshall, Sociology at the Crossroads and Other Essays (London: Heinemann, 1963), pp. 73-77, 87. For similar usages, Bryan S. Turner, "Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship," in Turner, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), p. 2, defines "the modern question of citizenship,' as being "structured by two issues": the nature of social membership and problems of the efficient and equal allocation of resources. See also Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History: Politics and Education (London: Longman, 1990); Bryan S. Turner, Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate Over Reformism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. M. Barbalet, Citizenship: Rights, Struggle and Class Inequality (Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1988), p. 2.
73. T. H. Marshall, Sociology at the Crossroads and Other Essays (London: Heinemann, 1963), pp. 73-77, 87. For similar usages, Bryan S. Turner, "Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship," in Turner, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), p. 2, defines "the modern question of citizenship,' as being "structured by two issues": the nature of social membership and problems of the efficient and equal allocation of resources. See also Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History: Politics and Education (London: Longman, 1990); Bryan S. Turner, Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate Over Reformism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. M. Barbalet, Citizenship: Rights, Struggle and Class Inequality (Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1988), p. 2.
74. T. H. Marshall, Sociology at the Crossroads and Other Essays (London: Heinemann, 1963), pp. 73-77, 87. For similar usages, Bryan S. Turner, "Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship," in Turner, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), p. 2, defines "the modern question of citizenship,' as being "structured by two issues": the nature of social membership and problems of the efficient and equal allocation of resources. See also Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History: Politics and Education (London: Longman, 1990); Bryan S. Turner, Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate Over Reformism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. M. Barbalet, Citizenship: Rights, Struggle and Class Inequality (Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1988), p. 2.
75. T. H. Marshall, Sociology at the Crossroads and Other Essays (London: Heinemann, 1963), pp. 73-77, 87. For similar usages, Bryan S. Turner, "Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship," in Turner, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), p. 2, defines "the modern question of citizenship,' as being "structured by two issues": the nature of social membership and problems of the efficient and equal allocation of resources. See also Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History: Politics and Education (London: Longman, 1990); Bryan S. Turner, Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate Over Reformism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. M. Barbalet, Citizenship: Rights, Struggle and Class Inequality (Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1988), p. 2.
76. T. H. Marshall, Sociology at the Crossroads and Other Essays (London: Heinemann, 1963), pp. 73-77, 87. For similar usages, Bryan S. Turner, "Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship," in Turner, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), p. 2, defines "the modern question of citizenship,' as being "structured by two issues": the nature of social membership and problems of the efficient and equal allocation of resources. See also Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History: Politics and Education (London: Longman, 1990); Bryan S. Turner, Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate Over Reformism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. M. Barbalet, Citizenship: Rights, Struggle and Class Inequality (Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1988), p. 2.
77. T. H. Marshall, Sociology at the Crossroads and Other Essays (London: Heinemann, 1963), pp. 73-77, 87. For similar usages, Bryan S. Turner, "Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship," in Turner, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), p. 2, defines "the modern question of citizenship,' as being "structured by two issues": the nature of social membership and problems of the efficient and equal allocation of resources. See also Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History: Politics and Education (London: Longman, 1990); Bryan S. Turner, Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate Over Reformism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986); Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. M. Barbalet, Citizenship: Rights, Struggle and Class Inequality (Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1988), p. 2.
78. Judith N. Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 1-3.
79. See McFate, "Western States," p. 13, and Roger Lawson and William Julius Wilson, "Poverty, Social Rights, and the Quality of Citizenship," in McFate et al., Poverty, p. 712.
80. See McFate, "Western States," p. 13, and Roger Lawson and William Julius Wilson, "Poverty, Social Rights, and the Quality of Citizenship," in McFate et al., Poverty, p. 712.
81. Mark Kesselman, "Does the French Labor Movement Have a Future?" in John T. S. Keeler and Martin A. Schain, eds., Chirac's Challenge: Liberalization, Europeanization, and Malaise in France (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), p. 154.
82. Enrique Dussel Peters, "From Export-Oriented to Import-Oriented Industrialization: Changes in Mexico's Manufacturing Sector, 1988-1994," in Otero, Neoliberalism Revisited, p. 80.
83. Shigeru Ishikawa, "Sino-Japanese Economic Cooperation," CQ 109 (1987): 12.
84. Bruce Cumings, "The Political Economy of China's Turn Outward," in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the World (Boulder: Westview, 1984), p. 242; Dorothy J. Solinger, From Lathes to Looms: China 's Industrial Policy in Comparative Perspective (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1991).
85. Bruce Cumings, "The Political Economy of China's Turn Outward," in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the World (Boulder: Westview, 1984), p. 242; Dorothy J. Solinger, From Lathes to Looms: China 's Industrial Policy in Comparative Perspective (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1991).
86. Dwight H. Perkins, China: Asia's Next Economic Giant? (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986), pp. 50-51.
87. World Bank, China 2020: China Engaged, Integration with the Global Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1997), p. 25. As a Chinese source explained, contrasting China's debts with those in Southeast Asia, "China's debts are domestic loans and its foreign debts are mainly long-term loans granted by international financial institutes, including the World Bank," in SWB FE/3170 (9 March 1998), S1/3, from STJP (7 March 1998), A3.
88. World Bank, China 2020: China Engaged, Integration with the Global Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1997), p. 25. As a Chinese source explained, contrasting China's debts with those in Southeast Asia, "China's debts are domestic loans and its foreign debts are mainly long-term loans granted by international financial institutes, including the World Bank," in SWB FE/3170 (9 March 1998), S1/3, from STJP (7 March 1998), A3.
89. SWB FE/3168 (6 March 1998), S2/1, from XH (4 March 1998).
90. Dwight Perkins, "Prospects for China's Integration into the Global Economy," in Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, ed., China's Economic Future: Challenges to U.S. Policy (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 35.
91. Peter Morici, "Barring Entry? China and the WTO," CH (September 1997): 276.
92. Dorothy J. Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China: Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic of the Market (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
93. The market access it would afford Chinese textiles and apparel and the competitive jolt it would provide to failing firms are doubtless also factors.
94. Morici, "Barring Entry," pp. 274-277; George D. Holliday, "China and the World Trade Organization," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future.
95. Morici, "Barring Entry," pp. 274-277; George D. Holliday, "China and the World Trade Organization," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future.
96. Nicholas R. Lardy, "China and the WTO," Brookings Policy Briefs (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1996), p. 3.
97. SWB FE/3168 (6 March 1998), S1/9, from XH (5 March 1998).
98. Lin Lean Lim and Gyorgy Sziraczki, "Employment, Social Security, and Enterprise Reforms in China," in Gregory K. Schoepfle, ed., Changes in China's Labor Market: Implications for the Future (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 1996), p. 50.
99. Translated in U.S. FBIS (19 July 1994), 18-26, from XH (5 July 1994). See also James V. Feinerman, "The Past - and Future - of Labor Law in China," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 119-134.
100. Translated in U.S. FBIS (19 July 1994), 18-26, from XH (5 July 1994). See also James V. Feinerman, "The Past - and Future - of Labor Law in China," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 119-134.
101. Translated in U.S. FBIS (19 July 1994), 18-26, from XH (5 July 1994). See also James V. Feinerman, "The Past - and Future - of Labor Law in China," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 119-134.
102. Holliday, "China and the World Trade Organization," pp. 452, 467-468.
103. Mary Gallagher, "An Unequal Battle: Why Labor Laws Regulations Fail to Protect Workers," CRF (summer 1997): 12. See also Minghua Zhao and Theo Nichols, "Management Control of Labour in State-Owned Enterprises: Cases from the Textile Industry," CJ 36 (1996): 1-21.
104. Mary Gallagher, "An Unequal Battle: Why Labor Laws Regulations Fail to Protect Workers," CRF (summer 1997): 12. See also Minghua Zhao and Theo Nichols, "Management Control of Labour in State-Owned Enterprises: Cases from the Textile Industry," CJ 36 (1996): 1-21.
105. SWB FE/3136 (28 January 1998), from Liaowang (Outlook), (5 January 1998), S1/2.
106. SWB FE/3136 (28 January 1998), from Liaowang (Outlook), (5 January 1998), S1/2.
107. Barry Naughton, "China's Emergence and Prospects as a Trading Nation," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2 (1996): 287.
108. From 1979 through the mid-1990s, the practice was to succor the original workers, via an array of disparate strategies over the years: first by retirements that permitted their own offspring to take their spots; then by the formation of "labor service companies" that provided job training and job creation; next by insisting that firms "redeploy" their redundant workers within their own firms by retraining them and/or by creating new affiliated enterprises (along with restrictions against dismissing workers, even if there was no work for them and little or no pay); and eventually, in 1995, by a national reemployment program that offered tax and loan incentives for developing new avenues of work for surplus labor. See Naughton, "The Emergence," pp. 287, 289;
109. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 151-166; Harry G. Broadman, "Reform of China's State-Owned Enterprises," in Schoepfle, Changes; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment"; Loraine A. West, "The Changing Effects of Economic Reform on Rural and Urban Employment," paper presented at "Unintended Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reform," conference at the Harvard School of Public Health and the Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 23-24 May 1997; Feinerman, "The Past"; Hilary K. Josephs, "Labor Law Reflects New Realities," CRF (fall 1996): 25; Christine P. W. Wong, Christopher Heady, and Wing T. Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 14.
110. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 151-166; Harry G. Broadman, "Reform of China's State-Owned Enterprises," in Schoepfle, Changes; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment"; Loraine A. West, "The Changing Effects of Economic Reform on Rural and Urban Employment," paper presented at "Unintended Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reform," conference at the Harvard School of Public Health and the Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 23-24 May 1997; Feinerman, "The Past"; Hilary K. Josephs, "Labor Law Reflects New Realities," CRF (fall 1996): 25; Christine P. W. Wong, Christopher Heady, and Wing T. Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 14.
111. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 151-166; Harry G. Broadman, "Reform of China's State-Owned Enterprises," in Schoepfle, Changes; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment"; Loraine A. West, "The Changing Effects of Economic Reform on Rural and Urban Employment," paper presented at "Unintended Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reform," conference at the Harvard School of Public Health and the Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 23-24 May 1997; Feinerman, "The Past"; Hilary K. Josephs, "Labor Law Reflects New Realities," CRF (fall 1996): 25; Christine P. W. Wong, Christopher Heady, and Wing T. Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 14.
112. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman,
113. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 151-166; Harry G. Broadman, "Reform of China's State-Owned Enterprises," in Schoepfle, Changes; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment"; Loraine A. West, "The Changing Effects of Economic Reform on Rural and Urban Employment," paper presented at "Unintended Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reform," conference at the Harvard School of Public Health and the Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 23-24 May 1997; Feinerman, "The Past"; Hilary K. Josephs, "Labor Law Reflects New Realities," CRF (fall 1996): 25; Christine P. W. Wong, Christopher Heady, and Wing T. Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 14.
114. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 151-166; Harry G. Broadman, "Reform of China's State-Owned Enterprises," in Schoepfle, Changes; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment"; Loraine A. West, "The Changing Effects of Economic Reform on Rural and Urban Employment," paper presented at "Unintended Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reform," conference at the Harvard School of Public Health and the Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 23-24 May 1997; Feinerman, "The Past"; Hilary K. Josephs, "Labor Law Reflects New Realities," CRF (fall 1996): 25; Christine P. W. Wong, Christopher Heady, and Wing T. Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 14.
115. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 151-166; Harry G. Broadman, "Reform of China's State-Owned Enterprises," in Schoepfle, Changes; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment"; Loraine A. West, "The Changing Effects of Economic Reform on Rural and Urban Employment," paper presented at "Unintended Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reform," conference at the Harvard School of Public Health and the Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 23-24 May 1997; Feinerman, "The Past"; Hilary K. Josephs, "Labor Law Reflects New Realities," CRF (fall 1996): 25; Christine P. W. Wong, Christopher Heady, and Wing T. Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 14.
116. Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 43; Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, pp. 151-166; Harry G. Broadman, "Reform of China's State-Owned Enterprises," in Schoepfle, Changes; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment"; Loraine A. West, "The Changing Effects of Economic Reform on Rural and Urban Employment," paper presented at "Unintended Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reform," conference at the Harvard School of Public Health and the Fairbank Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 23-24 May 1997; Feinerman, "The Past"; Hilary K. Josephs, "Labor Law Reflects New Realities," CRF (fall 1996): 25; Christine P. W. Wong, Christopher Heady, and Wing T. Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 14.
117. Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), pp. 40-43, 56-68.
118. Antoine Kernen, "Surviving Reform in Shenyang - New Poverty in Pioneer City," CRF (summer 1997): 11; Barry Naughton, "Implications of the State Monopoly over Industry and Its Relaxation," MC 18, no. 1 (1992): 14-41; Broadman, "Reform," pp. 4-5. "Collective" firms are in name owned by neighborhoods or rural administrations, sometimes by groups of rural citizens.
119. Antoine Kernen, "Surviving Reform in Shenyang - New Poverty in Pioneer City," CRF (summer 1997): 11; Barry Naughton, "Implications of the State Monopoly over Industry and Its Relaxation," MC 18, no. 1 (1992): 14-41; Broadman, "Reform," pp. 4-5. "Collective" firms are in name owned by neighborhoods or rural administrations, sometimes by groups of rural citizens.
120. Antoine Kernen, "Surviving Reform in Shenyang - New Poverty in Pioneer City," CRF (summer 1997): 11; Barry Naughton, "Implications of the State Monopoly over Industry and Its Relaxation," MC 18, no. 1 (1992): 14-41; Broadman, "Reform," pp. 4-5. "Collective" firms are in name owned by neighborhoods or rural administrations, sometimes by groups of rural citizens.
121. Antoine Kernen, "Surviving Reform in Shenyang - New Poverty in Pioneer City," CRF (summer 1997): 11; Barry Naughton, "Implications of the State Monopoly over Industry and Its Relaxation," MC 18, no. 1 (1992): 14-41; Broadman, "Reform," pp. 4-5. "Collective" firms are in name owned by neighborhoods or rural administrations, sometimes by groups of rural citizens.
122. Hu Angang in SWB, FE/3514 (21 April 1999), p. G16, from Gangao jingji (Lever economics), 1 March 1999.
123. At the Fifteenth Party Congress in September 1997, the minister of labor, Li Boyong, referred to "approximately 130 million peasants" who had "become idle in the rural areas" and who "may compete with urbanites for jobs" (SWB FE/3024 [15 September 1997], S2/18, from XH 14 [September 1997]).
124. Dorothy J. Solinger, "The Chinese Work Unit and Transient Labor in the Transition from Socialism," MC 21, no. 2 (1995): 155-183.
125. Sun Changmin, "Floating Population in Shanghai: A Perspective of Social Transformation in China," in Thomas Scharping, ed., Floating Population and Migration in China: The Impact of Economic Reforms (Hamburg: Institut für Asienkunde, 1997), p. 210.
126. Holliday, "China and the World Trade Organization," pp. 452, 467-468.
127. For instance, SWB FE/3104 (14 December 1997), S1/1 from Renmin ribao (Beijing), 14 December 1997.
128. This term was coined by Janos Kornai, in The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
129. See Stephen J. McGurk, review of Barry Naughton's Growing Out of the Plan, in CJ 39 (1998): 126.
130. See Wing Thye Woo, "Crises and Institutional Evolution in China's Industrial Sector," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, pp. 165, 167; and Edward S. Steinfeld, Forging Reform in China: The Fate of State-Owned Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
131. See Wing Thye Woo, "Crises and Institutional Evolution in China's Industrial Sector," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, pp. 165, 167; and Edward S. Steinfeld, Forging Reform in China: The Fate of State-Owned Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
132. SWB FE/3135 (27 January 1998), S1/3, from XH (23 January 1998); SWB FE/3111 (29 December 1997), S1/3, from XH (26 December 1997).
133. SWB FE/3135 (27 January 1998), S1/3, from XH (23 January 1998); SWB FE/3111 (29 December 1997), S1/3, from XH (26 December 1997).
134. SWB FE/3143 (5 February 1998), G/3, from STJP (4 February 1998). 59. From the current 1.3 million down to 600,000. See
135. SWB FE/3165 (3 March 1998), S1/4, from XH (25 February 1998).
136. Into the 1990s, only a scant number of bankruptcies were permitted to occur. (See Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 36. But a sharp increase in numbers took place in 1996 and 1997, with over 9,000 firms reportedly applying for bankruptcy in the one month of September 1997, when the Communist Party's Fifteenth Congress announced an acceleration of reforms in state firms. See Hang-Sheng Cheng, "A Mid-Course Assessment of China's Economic Reform," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, pp. 29-30; West, "Changing Effects," p. 6; Lo Ping, "Wenjian toulou qigai xian pinging" (Document reveals enterprises in a bottleneck), Zheng Ming [Contend] 12 (1997): 17. An official source claimed that 675 state enterprises were declared bankrupt and closed in China in 1997 (SWB FE/3168 [6 March 1998], S2/1, from XH [4 March 1998].)
137. Into the 1990s, only a scant number of bankruptcies were permitted to occur. (See Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 36. But a sharp increase in numbers took place in 1996 and 1997, with over 9,000 firms reportedly applying for bankruptcy in the one month of September 1997, when the Communist Party's Fifteenth Congress announced an acceleration of reforms in state firms. See Hang-Sheng Cheng, "A Mid-Course Assessment of China's Economic Reform," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, pp. 29-30; West, "Changing Effects," p. 6; Lo Ping, "Wenjian toulou qigai xian pinging" (Document reveals enterprises in a bottleneck), Zheng Ming [Contend] 12 (1997): 17. An official source claimed that 675 state enterprises were declared bankrupt and closed in China in 1997 (SWB FE/3168 [6 March 1998], S2/1, from XH [4 March 1998].)
138. Into the 1990s, only a scant number of bankruptcies were permitted to occur. (See Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 36. But a sharp increase in numbers took place in 1996 and 1997, with over 9,000 firms reportedly applying for bankruptcy in the one month of September 1997, when the Communist Party's Fifteenth Congress announced an acceleration of reforms in state firms. See Hang-Sheng Cheng, "A Mid-Course Assessment of China's Economic Reform," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, pp. 29-30; West, "Changing Effects," p. 6; Lo Ping, "Wenjian toulou qigai xian pinging" (Document reveals enterprises in a bottleneck), Zheng Ming [Contend] 12 (1997): 17. An official source claimed that 675 state enterprises were declared bankrupt and closed in China in 1997 (SWB FE/3168 [6 March 1998], S2/1, from XH [4 March 1998].)
139. Into the 1990s, only a scant number of bankruptcies were permitted to occur. (See Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 36. But a sharp increase in numbers took place in 1996 and 1997, with over 9,000 firms reportedly applying for bankruptcy in the one month of September 1997, when the Communist Party's Fifteenth Congress announced an acceleration of reforms in state firms. See Hang-Sheng Cheng, "A Mid-Course Assessment of China's Economic Reform," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, pp. 29-30; West, "Changing Effects," p. 6; Lo Ping, "Wenjian toulou qigai xian pinging" (Document reveals enterprises in a bottleneck), Zheng Ming [Contend] 12 (1997): 17. An official source claimed that 675 state enterprises were declared bankrupt and closed in China in 1997 (SWB FE/3168 [6 March 1998], S2/1, from XH [4 March 1998].)
140. Into the 1990s, only a scant number of bankruptcies were permitted to occur. (See Leonard J. Hausman and Barry J. Friedman, "Employment Creation: New and Old Methods," manuscript (1996 or 1997), p. 36. But a sharp increase in numbers took place in 1996 and 1997, with over 9,000 firms reportedly applying for bankruptcy in the one month of September 1997, when the Communist Party's Fifteenth Congress announced an acceleration of reforms in state firms. See Hang-Sheng Cheng, "A Mid-Course Assessment of China's Economic Reform," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, pp. 29-30; West, "Changing Effects," p. 6; Lo Ping, "Wenjian toulou qigai xian pinging" (Document reveals enterprises in a bottleneck), Zheng Ming [Contend] 12 (1997): 17. An official source claimed that 675 state enterprises were declared bankrupt and closed in China in 1997 (SWB FE/3168 [6 March 1998], S2/1, from XH [4 March 1998].)
141. West, "Changing Effects," p. 8.
142. On this, see Andrew Watson, "Enterprise Reform and Employment Change in Shaanxi Province," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Washington, D.C., 28 March 1998, pp. 15-16. See also Kernen, "Surviving Reform," p. 9.
143. On this, see Andrew Watson, "Enterprise Reform and Employment Change in Shaanxi Province," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Washington, D.C., 28 March 1998, pp. 15-16. See also Kernen, "Surviving Reform," p. 9.
144. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
145. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
146. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
147. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
148. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
149. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
150. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
151. According to MP, 20 December 1997, p. A11 (in SWB FE/3109 [23 December 1997], S1/1), the State Statistical Bureau had offered a figure of about 11 million; Liaowang, 5 January 1998 (in SWB FE/3136 [28 January 1998], S1/2) states 13 million laid-off workers and staff as of the end of 1997; and the Ping Kuo Jih Pao (Hong Kong), 29 January 1998, A15 (in SWB FE/3141 [3 February 1998], G/8) gives what it calls an "official figure" of 12 million. Chinese Academy of Social Science scholar Hu Angang claimed that the "actual urban jobless" numbered from 11 to 13 million, and that the actual unemployment rate was therefore about 7 percent, over twice the usual reported rate of around 3 percent. Hu's remarks are in MP, 18 February 1998, A13, reprinted in SWB FE/3155 (19 February 1998), G/13.
152. Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 49, explains that only workers with an urban household registration who are not on forced leave are counted as registered.
153. William H. Overholt, "China in the Balance," Nomura Strategy Paper, Hong Kong, 12 May 1999.
154. Naughton, "The Emergence," pp. 285, 273; Barry Naughton, Growing Out of the Plan: Chinese Economic Reforms, 1978-1993 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995) p. 297.
155. Naughton, "The Emergence," pp. 285, 273; Barry Naughton, Growing Out of the Plan: Chinese Economic Reforms, 1978-1993 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995) p. 297.
156. Naughton, Growing, p. 286.
157. Naughton, "The Emergence," p. 294; Wing, "Crisis," pp. 164-165. See also Naughton, Growing, pp. 274-300.
158. Naughton, "The Emergence," p. 294; Wing, "Crisis," pp. 164-165. See also Naughton, Growing, pp. 274-300.
159. Naughton, "The Emergence," p. 294; Wing, "Crisis," pp. 164-165. See also Naughton, Growing, pp. 274-300.
160. Naughton, Growing, pp. 286-287.
161. A Chinese yuan is equal to about U.S. $0.12.
162. West, "Changing Effects," p. 6; see also Lo, "Wenjian," p. 17.
163. West, "Changing Effects," p. 6; see also Lo, "Wenjian," p. 17.
164. Jerome Cohen, The Criminal Process in the People's Republic of China, 1949-1963 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968).
165. Pitman B. Potter, "Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China," CQ 138 (1994): 325-358; Pitman B. Potter, ed., Domestic Law Reforms in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994).
166. Pitman B. Potter, "Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China," CQ 138 (1994): 325-358; Pitman B. Potter, ed., Domestic Law Reforms in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994).
167. Morici, "Barring Entry?" p. 275.
168. Dwight Perkins, "Prospects for China's Integration into the Global Economy," in Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Future, p. 37.
169. Feinerman, "The Past," p. 119.
170. Josephs, "Labor Law," concerning the adoption of the law on 5 July 1994, translated in FBIS, 19 July 1994.
171. See Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism; Gail E. Henderson and Myron S. Cohen, The Chinese Hospital: A Socialist Work Unit (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Xiaobo Lu and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds., Danwei: The Chinese Workunit in Historical and Comparative Perspective (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
172. See Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism; Gail E. Henderson and Myron S. Cohen, The Chinese Hospital: A Socialist Work Unit (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Xiaobo Lu and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds., Danwei: The Chinese Workunit in Historical and Comparative Perspective (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
173. See Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism; Gail E. Henderson and Myron S. Cohen, The Chinese Hospital: A Socialist Work Unit (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Xiaobo Lu and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds., Danwei: The Chinese Workunit in Historical and Comparative Perspective (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
174. Kornai, The Socialist System, p. 315.
175. Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, p. 157; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 60; Han Dongfang, "The Prospects of a Free Labor Movement in China," in Schoepfle, Changes, p. 167.
176. Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, p. 157; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 60; Han Dongfang, "The Prospects of a Free Labor Movement in China," in Schoepfle, Changes, p. 167.
177. Barry L. Friedman, "Employment and Social Protection Policies in China: Big Reforms and Limited Outcomes," in Schoepfle, Changes, p. 157; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 60; Han Dongfang, "The Prospects of a Free Labor Movement in China," in Schoepfle, Changes, p. 167.
178. West, "The Changing Effects," p. 10.
179. Broadman, "Reform," p. 6.
180. FBIS, 19 July 1994, p. 19.
181. Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 52.
182. Feinerman, "The Past," p. 129.
183. SWB FE/3111 (17 December 1997), S1/4, from XH (17 December 1997).
184. Interview at the Employment Section of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, 1 September 1998, Beijing.
185. Antoine Kernen and Jean-Louis Rocca, "The Reform of State-Owned Enterprises and Its Social Consequences in Shenyang and Liaoning," manuscript, 1999, p. 8.
186. Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China.
187. Sun, "Floating Population," p. 211.
188. Cao Jingxing, "A Good Trend or a Reason for Worry?" China Focus 5, no. 8 (August 1997): 8; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 53, for an official source; SWB FE/3162 (27 February 1998), G/5, from XH (20 February 1998).
189. Cao Jingxing, "A Good Trend or a Reason for Worry?" China Focus 5, no. 8 (August 1997): 8; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 53, for an official source; SWB FE/3162 (27 February 1998), G/5, from XH (20 February 1998).
190. Cao Jingxing, "A Good Trend or a Reason for Worry?" China Focus 5, no. 8 (August 1997): 8; Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," p. 53, for an official source; SWB FE/3162 (27 February 1998), G/5, from XH (20 February 1998).
191. See David Lamb,."Migrant Asians Now Out of Work," Los Angeles Times, 3 March 1998, pp. A3, A9; and Margot Cohen, "Deport and Deter," Far Eastern Economic Review, 23 April 1998, pp. 16-20.
192. See David Lamb,."Migrant Asians Now Out of Work," Los Angeles Times, 3 March 1998, pp. A3, A9; and Margot Cohen, "Deport and Deter," Far Eastern Economic Review, 23 April 1998, pp. 16-20.
193. "Provisions on Employing Contract Workers from Among the Peasants by State-Owned Enterprises," in Zhonghua renmin gongheguo quowuyuan gongbao (Bulletin of the State Council of the Chinese People's Republic) 28 (667) (18 October 1991): 1001-1016.
194. See note 45.
195. Lim and Sziraczki, "Employment," pp. 64, 61.
196. FBIS: 23 February 1995, p. 68; 16 March 1995, p. 33; 28 June 1995, p. 81. See also West, "Changing Effects," p. 11 ; Xiao Lichun, "Shanghai shiye, xiagang renyuan xianzhuang ji fazhan qushi" (Shanghai unemployment, laid-off personnel's situation and development trend), Zhongguo renkou kexue (Chinese population science) 3 (1998): 26-37.
197. FBIS: 23 February 1995, p. 68; 16 March 1995, p. 33; 28 June 1995, p. 81. See also West, "Changing Effects," p. 11 ; Xiao Lichun, "Shanghai shiye, xiagang renyuan xianzhuang ji fazhan qushi" (Shanghai unemployment, laid-off personnel's situation and development trend), Zhongguo renkou kexue (Chinese population science) 3 (1998): 26-37.
198. FBIS: 23 February 1995, p. 68; 16 March 1995, p. 33; 28 June 1995, p. 81. See also West, "Changing Effects," p. 11 ; Xiao Lichun, "Shanghai shiye, xiagang renyuan xianzhuang ji fazhan qushi" (Shanghai unemployment, laid-off personnel's situation and development trend), Zhongguo renkou kexue (Chinese population science) 3 (1998): 26-37.
199. FBIS: 23 February 1995, p. 68; 16 March 1995, p. 33; 28 June 1995, p. 81. See also West, "Changing Effects," p. 11 ; Xiao Lichun, "Shanghai shiye, xiagang renyuan xianzhuang ji fazhan qushi" (Shanghai unemployment, laid-off personnel's situation and development trend), Zhongguo renkou kexue (Chinese population science) 3 (1998): 26-37.
200. FBIS: 23 February 1995, p. 68; 16 March 1995, p. 33; 28 June 1995, p. 81. See also West, "Changing Effects," p. 11 ; Xiao Lichun, "Shanghai shiye, xiagang renyuan xianzhuang ji fazhan qushi" (Shanghai unemployment, laid-off personnel's situation and development trend), Zhongguo renkou kexue (Chinese population science) 3 (1998): 26-37.
201. Kernen, "Surviving Reform," p. 11.
202. Ibid., p. 10.