Voxels in the brain: Neuroscience, informatics and changing notions of objectivity

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 31, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 635-680

  Beaulieu, Anne ^a  

^a ROYAL NETHERLANDS ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Atlas; Cyberscience; Database; Neuroinformatics; Objectivity; Social informatics

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BRAIN; HISTORY; MEDICAL INFORMATICS; NEUROSCIENCE; RESEARCH; UNITED STATES;

BRAIN; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; MEDICAL INFORMATICS; NEUROSCIENCES; RESEARCH; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0035496381     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631201031005001     Document Type: Article

References (191)

1. James M. Bower, 'What Will Save Neuroscience?', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S29-S33.
2. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
3. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
4. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
5. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
6. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
7. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
8. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
9. Funds of about $4-5 million were planned for the first call in 1993: see Anon., Program Announcement, 'The Human Brain Project: Phase 1 Feasibility Studies', NIH Guide, Vol. 22, No. 13 (2 April 1993): 〈http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-93-068.html〉. By 1996, about 60 investigators were supported: Michael F. Huerta and Stephen H. Koslow, 'Opportunities across Disciplinary and National Borders', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S4-S6. The HBP budget for FY 2000 is $10.6 million: see Stephen H. Koslow, 'Should the Neuroscience Community Make a Paradigm Shift to Sharing Primary Data?', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 865. The report that launched this initiative was published in 1991: Constance M. Pechura and Joseph B. Martin, Mapping the Brain and its Functions: Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991). Fears that all funding would be monopolized by this project were expressed at that time and, since then, the project has also had to defend its 'big science' status: see Dominic Purpura, ''The Human Brain Project: Priority or Problem?', in Michael F. Huerta and Steven H. Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics: An Overview of the Human Brain Mapping Project (Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 13-19; Richard Frackowiak, 'Recreating the Brain Online', Science, Vol. 279 (27 February 1998), 1320. The HBP was sometimes identified as a 'big science' project, comparable to the physicists' Super Collider and the Human Genome Project: see Leslie Roberts, 'A Call to Action on a Human Brain Mapping Project', Science, Vol. 252 (28 June 1991), 1974; Purpura, op. cit. It has also been deplored that the Decade of the Brain has simply resulted in redistribution of the same funds, with less freedom: Martin Enserink, "e Zwakke signalen uit Brein 2002', Zeno, Vol. 1 (1993), 4-7.
10. The term 'neuroinformatics' is first mentioned in relation to the HBP in an Addendum (15 September 1994), to the Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2. The word is now very widespread, and this sense of the term, in which informatics are subsumed to the goals of neuroscience, now predominates an earlier sense, in which it referred to a field also known as 'computational neuroscience'.
11. In September 2000, the Vienna joint conference of the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S) and the European Association for Studies of Science and Technology (EASST) hosted panels on cyberscience, an umbrella term meant to encompass the changes in scientific practice brought about by new digital and electronic resources. Evelyn Fox Keller uses the term to refer to the field of computer science, widely defined to include information theory, cybernetics, operations research and computer science: cited in Catherine Waldby, 'The Visible Human Project: Data into Flesh, Flesh into Data', in Janine Marchessault and Kim Sawchuk (eds), Wild Science: Feminist Readings of Science, Medicine and the Media (London: Routledge, 2000), 24-38.
12. Both collaboratories and databases were hotly debated in the American Federal research management context in the early 1990s: see Vinton G. Cerf et al., 'Committee on a National Collaboratory: Establishing the User-Developer Partnership', Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Applications, National Research Council, National Collaboratories: Applying Information Technology for Scientific Research (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1993).
13. Pechura & Martin, op. cit. note 2.
14. Final Report of the OECD Megascience Forum Working Group on Biological Informatics (January 1999), 6: 〈www.oecd.org/dsti/sti/s_t/act/ms_act.htm〉.
15. See, for example, Joan H. Fujimura and Michael Fortun, 'Constructing Knowledge Across Social Worlds: The Case of DNA Sequence Databases in Molecular Biology', in Laura Nader (ed.), Naked Science: Anthropological Inquiry into Boundaries, Power and Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1996), 160-73, on the use of genetic databases versus 'wet' experiments in the lab, and the respective amount of 'labour' involved. For an analysis of changing styles of writing and data analysis in the social sciences, see Bella Dicks and Bruce Mason, 'Hypermedia and Ethnography: Reflections on the Construction of a Research Approach', Sociological Research Online, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1998) 〈http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/3/3/3.html〉; Roger Slack, 'On the Potentialities and Problems of a WWW Based Naturalistic Sociology', ibid., Vol. 3, No. 2 (1998) 〈www.[ibid.]/3/2/3.html〉; for an analysis of practices surrounding electronic publishing, see Marcel Lafollette, 'Observations on Fraud and Scientific Integrity in a Digital Environment', Journal of the American Society for Information Science, Vol. 51, No. 14 (December 2000), 1334-37. For an attempt at a more integrated approach to the study of these various changes, see the Dutch Institute for Scientific Information (NIWI), 'Exploring the Future of Scholarly Information & Communication', NIWI Research Programme 2000-2004 (2000), 〈http://www.niwi.knaw.nl/nl/research/res_ prog.pdf〉.
16. See, for example, Joan H. Fujimura and Michael Fortun, 'Constructing Knowledge Across Social Worlds: The Case of DNA Sequence Databases in Molecular Biology', in Laura Nader (ed.), Naked Science: Anthropological Inquiry into Boundaries, Power and Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1996), 160-73, on the use of genetic databases versus 'wet' experiments in the lab, and the respective amount of 'labour' involved. For an analysis of changing styles of writing and data analysis in the social sciences, see Bella Dicks and Bruce Mason, 'Hypermedia and Ethnography: Reflections on the Construction of a Research Approach', Sociological Research Online, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1998) 〈http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/3/3/3.html〉; Roger Slack, 'On the Potentialities and Problems of a WWW Based Naturalistic Sociology', ibid., Vol. 3, No. 2 (1998) 〈www.[ibid.]/3/2/3.html〉; for an analysis of practices surrounding electronic publishing, see Marcel Lafollette, 'Observations on Fraud and Scientific Integrity in a Digital Environment', Journal of the American Society for Information Science, Vol. 51, No. 14 (December 2000), 1334-37. For an attempt at a more integrated approach to the study of these various changes, see the Dutch Institute for Scientific Information (NIWI), 'Exploring the Future of Scholarly Information & Communication', NIWI Research Programme 2000-2004 (2000), 〈http://www.niwi.knaw.nl/nl/research/res_ prog.pdf〉.
17. See, for example, Joan H. Fujimura and Michael Fortun, 'Constructing Knowledge Across Social Worlds: The Case of DNA Sequence Databases in Molecular Biology', in Laura Nader (ed.), Naked Science: Anthropological Inquiry into Boundaries, Power and Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1996), 160-73, on the use of genetic databases versus 'wet' experiments in the lab, and the respective amount of 'labour' involved. For an analysis of changing styles of writing and data analysis in the social sciences, see Bella Dicks and Bruce Mason, 'Hypermedia and Ethnography: Reflections on the Construction of a Research Approach', Sociological Research Online, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1998) 〈http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/3/3/3.html〉; Roger Slack, 'On the Potentialities and Problems of a WWW Based Naturalistic Sociology', ibid., Vol. 3, No. 2 (1998) 〈www.[ibid.]/3/2/3.html〉; for an analysis of practices surrounding electronic publishing, see Marcel Lafollette, 'Observations on Fraud and Scientific Integrity in a Digital Environment', Journal of the American Society for Information Science, Vol. 51, No. 14 (December 2000), 1334-37. For an attempt at a more integrated approach to the study of these various changes, see the Dutch Institute for Scientific Information (NIWI), 'Exploring the Future of Scholarly Information & Communication', NIWI Research Programme 2000-2004 (2000), 〈http://www.niwi.knaw.nl/nl/research/res_ prog.pdf〉.
18. See, for example, Joan H. Fujimura and Michael Fortun, 'Constructing Knowledge Across Social Worlds: The Case of DNA Sequence Databases in Molecular Biology', in Laura Nader (ed.), Naked Science: Anthropological Inquiry into Boundaries, Power and Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1996), 160-73, on the use of genetic databases versus 'wet' experiments in the lab, and the respective amount of 'labour' involved. For an analysis of changing styles of writing and data analysis in the social sciences, see Bella Dicks and Bruce Mason, 'Hypermedia and Ethnography: Reflections on the Construction of a Research Approach', Sociological Research Online, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1998) 〈http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/3/3/3.html〉; Roger Slack, 'On the Potentialities and Problems of a WWW Based Naturalistic Sociology', ibid., Vol. 3, No. 2 (1998) 〈www.[ibid.]/3/2/3.html〉; for an analysis of practices surrounding electronic publishing, see Marcel Lafollette, 'Observations on Fraud and Scientific Integrity in a Digital Environment', Journal of the American Society for Information Science, Vol. 51, No. 14 (December 2000), 1334-37. For an attempt at a more integrated approach to the study of these various changes, see the Dutch Institute for Scientific Information (NIWI), 'Exploring the Future of Scholarly Information & Communication', NIWI Research Programme 2000-2004 (2000), 〈http://www.niwi.knaw.nl/nl/research/res_ prog.pdf〉.
19. See, for example, Joan H. Fujimura and Michael Fortun, 'Constructing Knowledge Across Social Worlds: The Case of DNA Sequence Databases in Molecular Biology', in Laura Nader (ed.), Naked Science: Anthropological Inquiry into Boundaries, Power and Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1996), 160-73, on the use of genetic databases versus 'wet' experiments in the lab, and the respective amount of 'labour' involved. For an analysis of changing styles of writing and data analysis in the social sciences, see Bella Dicks and Bruce Mason, 'Hypermedia and Ethnography: Reflections on the Construction of a Research Approach', Sociological Research Online, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1998) 〈http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/3/3/3.html〉; Roger Slack, 'On the Potentialities and Problems of a WWW Based Naturalistic Sociology', ibid., Vol. 3, No. 2 (1998) 〈www.[ibid.]/3/2/3.html〉; for an analysis of practices surrounding electronic publishing, see Marcel Lafollette, 'Observations on Fraud and Scientific Integrity in a Digital Environment', Journal of the American Society for Information Science, Vol. 51, No. 14 (December 2000), 1334-37. For an attempt at a more integrated approach to the study of these various changes, see the Dutch Institute for Scientific Information (NIWI), 'Exploring the Future of Scholarly Information & Communication', NIWI Research Programme 2000-2004 (2000), 〈http://www.niwi.knaw.nl/nl/research/res_ prog.pdf〉.
20. Rob Kling, 'Learning About Information Technologies and Social Change: The Contribution of Social Informatics', The Information Society, Vol. 16, No. 3 (July-September 2000), 1-37.
21. Karin Knorr Cetina, Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Sharon Traweek Lifetimes and Beamtimes: The World of High Energy Physics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); Olga Amsterdamska and Anja Hiddinga, 'The Analyzed Body', in John Pickstone and Roger Cooter (eds), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (London: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 419-35.
22. Karin Knorr Cetina, Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Sharon Traweek Lifetimes and Beamtimes: The World of High Energy Physics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); Olga Amsterdamska and Anja Hiddinga, 'The Analyzed Body', in John Pickstone and Roger Cooter (eds), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (London: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 419-35.
23. Karin Knorr Cetina, Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Sharon Traweek Lifetimes and Beamtimes: The World of High Energy Physics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); Olga Amsterdamska and Anja Hiddinga, 'The Analyzed Body', in John Pickstone and Roger Cooter (eds), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (London: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 419-35.
24. Geoffrey C. Bowker, 'Biodiversity Datadiversity', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 5 (October 2000), 643-83.
25. Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan Leigh Star, Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).
26. Donna J. Haraway, Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium. FemaleMan©_Meets_ OncoMouse™. Feminism and Technoscience (New York & London: Routledge, 1997), esp. Chapters 4, 5 & 6, 131-213.
27. Waldby, op. cit. note 4.
28. See Irma van der Ploeg, 'Hermaphrodite Patients: In Vitro Fertilization and the Transformation of Male Infertility', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Autumn 1995), 460-81, for an incisive analysis of the subject positions offered to women, foetuses and men in the technologies of reproductive medicine.
29. Linda F. Hogle, 'Standardization Across Non-standard Domains: The Case of Organ Procurement', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Autumn 1995), 482-500.
30. Marc Berg, Rationalising Medical Work: Decision Support Techniques and Medical Practices (unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Health Ethics and Philosophy, University of Maastricht, 1995).
31. See Fujimura & Fortun, op. cit. note 8.
32. See Michael Lynch, 'Laboratory Space and the Technological Complex: An Investigation of Topical Contextures', Science in Context, Vol. 4 (1991), 51-78.
33. N. Katherine Hayles, 'The Materiality of Informatics', Configurations, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Winter 1992), 147-70.
34. Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, Vol. 40, No. 1 (Fall 1992), 81-128.
35. Ibid., 84-98.
36. Ibid., 82-83.
37. Another main aspect of atlases, and certainly one that is crucial for atlases of the body, is the representation of the normal. Like objectivity, the 'normal' is not a monolithic concept but is, rather, dependent on the institutions, technologies and kinds of measurements made. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), esp. Chapter 17, 'An Indeterminacy in the Past', 234-57; Alan Sekula, 'The Body and the Archive', October, Vol. 39 (1986), 2-64. The involvement of atlases in this process has been analysed in terms of the young male body as the norm, and the female or ageing body as the deviating version: see Susan Lawrence and Kate Bendixen, 'His and Hers: Male and Female Anatomy in Anatomy Texts for US Medical Students', Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 35, No. 7 (October 1992), 925-33. Atlases are representations created through (and sustaining) these conventions, though only those concerning objectivity are discussed here.
38. Another main aspect of atlases, and certainly one that is crucial for atlases of the body, is the representation of the normal. Like objectivity, the 'normal' is not a monolithic concept but is, rather, dependent on the institutions, technologies and kinds of measurements made. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), esp. Chapter 17, 'An Indeterminacy in the Past', 234-57; Alan Sekula, 'The Body and the Archive', October, Vol. 39 (1986), 2-64. The involvement of atlases in this process has been analysed in terms of the young male body as the norm, and the female or ageing body as the deviating version: see Susan Lawrence and Kate Bendixen, 'His and Hers: Male and Female Anatomy in Anatomy Texts for US Medical Students', Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 35, No. 7 (October 1992), 925-33. Atlases are representations created through (and sustaining) these conventions, though only those concerning objectivity are discussed here.
39. Another main aspect of atlases, and certainly one that is crucial for atlases of the body, is the representation of the normal. Like objectivity, the 'normal' is not a monolithic concept but is, rather, dependent on the institutions, technologies and kinds of measurements made. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), esp. Chapter 17, 'An Indeterminacy in the Past', 234-57; Alan Sekula, 'The Body and the Archive', October, Vol. 39 (1986), 2-64. The involvement of atlases in this process has been analysed in terms of the young male body as the norm, and the female or ageing body as the deviating version: see Susan Lawrence and Kate Bendixen, 'His and Hers: Male and Female Anatomy in Anatomy Texts for US Medical Students', Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 35, No. 7 (October 1992), 925-33. Atlases are representations created through (and sustaining) these conventions, though only those concerning objectivity are discussed here.
40. Another main aspect of atlases, and certainly one that is crucial for atlases of the body, is the representation of the normal. Like objectivity, the 'normal' is not a monolithic concept but is, rather, dependent on the institutions, technologies and kinds of measurements made. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), esp. Chapter 17, 'An Indeterminacy in the Past', 234-57; Alan Sekula, 'The Body and the Archive', October, Vol. 39 (1986), 2-64. The involvement of atlases in this process has been analysed in terms of the young male body as the norm, and the female or ageing body as the deviating version: see Susan Lawrence and Kate Bendixen, 'His and Hers: Male and Female Anatomy in Anatomy Texts for US Medical Students', Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 35, No. 7 (October 1992), 925-33. Atlases are representations created through (and sustaining) these conventions, though only those concerning objectivity are discussed here.
41. See the website of the NIMH Office for Neuroinformatics at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ neuroinformatics/index.cfm
42. Larry Swanson, 'Mapping the Human Brain: Past, Present and Future', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 11 (November 1995), 471-73. Brain mapping has been called a convergence of disciplines, and characterized as having a multidisciplinary nature: see Peter Fox, 'Human Brain Mapping: A Convergence of Disciplines', Human Brain Mapping, Vol. 1 (1993), 1-2; Arthur Toga, 'Editorial', NeuroImage, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1992), 1.
43. Larry Swanson, 'Mapping the Human Brain: Past, Present and Future', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 11 (November 1995), 471-73. Brain mapping has been called a convergence of disciplines, and characterized as having a multidisciplinary nature: see Peter Fox, 'Human Brain Mapping: A Convergence of Disciplines', Human Brain Mapping, Vol. 1 (1993), 1-2; Arthur Toga, 'Editorial', NeuroImage, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1992), 1.
44. Larry Swanson, 'Mapping the Human Brain: Past, Present and Future', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 11 (November 1995), 471-73. Brain mapping has been called a convergence of disciplines, and characterized as having a multidisciplinary nature: see Peter Fox, 'Human Brain Mapping: A Convergence of Disciplines', Human Brain Mapping, Vol. 1 (1993), 1-2; Arthur Toga, 'Editorial', NeuroImage, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1992), 1.
45. See Anne Beaulieu, 'The Brain at the End of the Rainbow: Promises of Brain Scanning in the Research Field and in the Media', in Marchessault & Sawchuk (eds), op. cit. note 4, 39-52; Joseph Dumit, 'Desiring a Beautiful Image of the Brain: A Cultural Semiotic Enquiry' (paper presented at the Conference on Visual Representation in Scientific Practice, Gavelston, TX, 28 April-11 May 1994).
46. See Anne Beaulieu, 'The Brain at the End of the Rainbow: Promises of Brain Scanning in the Research Field and in the Media', in Marchessault & Sawchuk (eds), op. cit. note 4, 39-52; Joseph Dumit, 'Desiring a Beautiful Image of the Brain: A Cultural Semiotic Enquiry' (paper presented at the Conference on Visual Representation in Scientific Practice, Gavelston, TX, 28 April-11 May 1994).
47. Jean Talairach and Pierre Tournoux, trans. Mark Rayport, Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain: 3-Dimensional Proportional System: An Approach to Cerebral Imaging (Stuttgart: Georg Tieme Verlag, 1988).
48. The Positron Emission Tomography (PET) technique allows the measurement of particular radioactive tracers in the brain. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) provides scans of the brain without the radiation involved in CT scanning, and is therefore more widely applicable, to 'normal' (non-clinical) subjects, including children, and for repeated scanning.
49. There were hopes that the neuroscientific community would be more successful than the splintered resources of the genomic community, because of the central coordination of the efforts by a board representing the granting agencies, which would ensure that the various databases would be built so as to be compatible, and could thus be 'federated': see Peter Fox and Jack Lancaster, 'Neuroscience on the Net', Science, Vol. 266 (11 November 1994), 994-96.
50. Japan led the development of the 'Human Frontier Program' (in the late 1980s), which strongly emphasized neuroscience research. The United States also dedicated the decade (in 1990), while the European Union launched its initiative in 1992: F. Pandolfi, 'Inauguration of the European Decade of Brain Research', in J. Mendlewicz, N. Brunello, S. Langer and G. Racagni (eds), New Pharmacological Approaches to the Therapy of Depressive Disorders (Basel: International Academy of Biomedical Drug Research, Karger, 1993), 135-38. A number of other countries (Italy, Sweden, The Netherlands, Canada) also launched 'decades' around this time. While thematically linked, the agendas of each initiative differed somewhat. The goals formulated by the European task force for the Decade of Brain research addressed the need for neuroscience to 'reach a "critical mass" of neuroscientists needed to carry out research most efficiently', and be able to compete with the USA: see Alison Abbott, 'Confusion About Form and Function Clouds Launch of EC's Decade of the Brain', Nature, Vol. 359 (24 September 1992), 260; Pandolfi, op. cit.
51. Japan led the development of the 'Human Frontier Program' (in the late 1980s), which strongly emphasized neuroscience research. The United States also dedicated the decade (in 1990), while the European Union launched its initiative in 1992: F. Pandolfi, 'Inauguration of the European Decade of Brain Research', in J. Mendlewicz, N. Brunello, S. Langer and G. Racagni (eds), New Pharmacological Approaches to the Therapy of Depressive Disorders (Basel: International Academy of Biomedical Drug Research, Karger, 1993), 135-38. A number of other countries (Italy, Sweden, The Netherlands, Canada) also launched 'decades' around this time. While thematically linked, the agendas of each initiative differed somewhat. The goals formulated by the European task force for the Decade of Brain research addressed the need for neuroscience to 'reach a "critical mass" of neuroscientists needed to carry out research most efficiently', and be able to compete with the USA: see Alison Abbott, 'Confusion About Form and Function Clouds Launch of EC's Decade of the Brain', Nature, Vol. 359 (24 September 1992), 260; Pandolfi, op. cit.
52. See various histories in Sten Grillner, 'From Ion Channels to Networks and Behaviour: Modelling and Biological Experiments in Interaction', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S19-S22;
53. Line Matthiessen, 'Support and Coordination of Neuroscience and Informatics Research in Europe: Research in the Field of Neuroscience under European Union Programs', ibid., S2-S3.
54. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
55. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
56. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
57. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
58. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
59. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
60. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
61. Various versions of this narrative can be found in: Floyd Bloom, 'Neuroscience-knowledge Management: Slow Change So Far', Trends in the Neurosciences, Vol. 18, No. 2 (February 1995), 48-49; Gwen A. Jacobs, 'Analysis of Information Processing in the Nervous System Using a Database of Identified Neurons', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S23-S24; Program Announcement, op. cit. note 2; Fox, op. cit. note 26; and Alan Gibbons, 'Databasing the Brain', Science, Vol. 258 (18 December 1992), 1872-73. This explosion is often illustrated by tracing the membership of the Society for Neuroscience: less than 400 scientists at a meeting in the early 1970s, then 20,000 in 1991: see Lewis Judd, 'The Decade of the Brain in the United States', in Mendlewicz et al. (eds), op. cit. note 31, 147-50. This narrative continues to appear to the present: see the Neuroinformatics web page at NIMH (op. cit. note 25); and Koslow (2000), op. cit. note 2.
62. Geoffrey Bowker notes that scientists in the field of biology also feel bounded by the amount of literature available to them, even within their own specialty: Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 651. The narrative of the 'crisis' in neuroscience constitutes an interesting contrast to that of the Human Genome Project, where the story of the development of the project, as told by Lois Wingerson, Mapping our Genes: The Genome Project and the Future of Medicine (New York: Penguin, 1990) and in the Human Genome News, is one of 'individual scientists gradually becoming aware of the surplus value of their combined efforts': see Jose van Dijck, 'Reading the Human Genome Narrative', Science as Culture, Vol. 5 (Part 2), No. 23 (1995), 218-47. While they cannot be discussed here, differences in these calls to rationalization should not be glossed over, as they may indicate a variety of configurations of concerns (to move away from judgement, to address managerial concerns, and so on) and of the need for these tools to provide an interface between science and policy. The particular version of the HBP's need for a coordinated effort makes the project less urgent, but might also make it less threatening to scientists who fear imposed standards and control from above - fears which are often heard in discussions of the Human Brain Project (see, for example, Purpura, op. cit. note 2). Fears, and resistance to the imposition of standards and the requirement to make data available in publicly accessible databases (a common practice in many molecular biology settings) are at the root of a controversy currently raging in the functional imaging community: see the Editorial, 'A Debate Over fMRI Data Sharing', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 845-46.
63. Geoffrey Bowker notes that scientists in the field of biology also feel bounded by the amount of literature available to them, even within their own specialty: Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 651. The narrative of the 'crisis' in neuroscience constitutes an interesting contrast to that of the Human Genome Project, where the story of the development of the project, as told by Lois Wingerson, Mapping our Genes: The Genome Project and the Future of Medicine (New York: Penguin, 1990) and in the Human Genome News, is one of 'individual scientists gradually becoming aware of the surplus value of their combined efforts': see Jose van Dijck, 'Reading the Human Genome Narrative', Science as Culture, Vol. 5 (Part 2), No. 23 (1995), 218-47. While they cannot be discussed here, differences in these calls to rationalization should not be glossed over, as they may indicate a variety of configurations of concerns (to move away from judgement, to address managerial concerns, and so on) and of the need for these tools to provide an interface between science and policy. The particular version of the HBP's need for a coordinated effort makes the project less urgent, but might also make it less threatening to scientists who fear imposed standards and control from above - fears which are often heard in discussions of the Human Brain Project (see, for example, Purpura, op. cit. note 2). Fears, and resistance to the imposition of standards and the requirement to make data available in publicly accessible databases (a common practice in many molecular biology settings) are at the root of a controversy currently raging in the functional imaging community: see the Editorial, 'A Debate Over fMRI Data Sharing', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 845-46.
64. Geoffrey Bowker notes that scientists in the field of biology also feel bounded by the amount of literature available to them, even within their own specialty: Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 651. The narrative of the 'crisis' in neuroscience constitutes an interesting contrast to that of the Human Genome Project, where the story of the development of the project, as told by Lois Wingerson, Mapping our Genes: The Genome Project and the Future of Medicine (New York: Penguin, 1990) and in the Human Genome News, is one of 'individual scientists gradually becoming aware of the surplus value of their combined efforts': see Jose van Dijck, 'Reading the Human Genome Narrative', Science as Culture, Vol. 5 (Part 2), No. 23 (1995), 218-47. While they cannot be discussed here, differences in these calls to rationalization should not be glossed over, as they may indicate a variety of configurations of concerns (to move away from judgement, to address managerial concerns, and so on) and of the need for these tools to provide an interface between science and policy. The particular version of the HBP's need for a coordinated effort makes the project less urgent, but might also make it less threatening to scientists who fear imposed standards and control from above - fears which are often heard in discussions of the Human Brain Project (see, for example, Purpura, op. cit. note 2). Fears, and resistance to the imposition of standards and the requirement to make data available in publicly accessible databases (a common practice in many molecular biology settings) are at the root of a controversy currently raging in the functional imaging community: see the Editorial, 'A Debate Over fMRI Data Sharing', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 845-46.
65. Geoffrey Bowker notes that scientists in the field of biology also feel bounded by the amount of literature available to them, even within their own specialty: Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 651. The narrative of the 'crisis' in neuroscience constitutes an interesting contrast to that of the Human Genome Project, where the story of the development of the project, as told by Lois Wingerson, Mapping our Genes: The Genome Project and the Future of Medicine (New York: Penguin, 1990) and in the Human Genome News, is one of 'individual scientists gradually becoming aware of the surplus value of their combined efforts': see Jose van Dijck, 'Reading the Human Genome Narrative', Science as Culture, Vol. 5 (Part 2), No. 23 (1995), 218-47. While they cannot be discussed here, differences in these calls to rationalization should not be glossed over, as they may indicate a variety of configurations of concerns (to move away from judgement, to address managerial concerns, and so on) and of the need for these tools to provide an interface between science and policy. The particular version of the HBP's need for a coordinated effort makes the project less urgent, but might also make it less threatening to scientists who fear imposed standards and control from above - fears which are often heard in discussions of the Human Brain Project (see, for example, Purpura, op. cit. note 2). Fears, and resistance to the imposition of standards and the requirement to make data available in publicly accessible databases (a common practice in many molecular biology settings) are at the root of a controversy currently raging in the functional imaging community: see the Editorial, 'A Debate Over fMRI Data Sharing', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 845-46.
66. Geoffrey Bowker notes that scientists in the field of biology also feel bounded by the amount of literature available to them, even within their own specialty: Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 651. The narrative of the 'crisis' in neuroscience constitutes an interesting contrast to that of the Human Genome Project, where the story of the development of the project, as told by Lois Wingerson, Mapping our Genes: The Genome Project and the Future of Medicine (New York: Penguin, 1990) and in the Human Genome News, is one of 'individual scientists gradually becoming aware of the surplus value of their combined efforts': see Jose van Dijck, 'Reading the Human Genome Narrative', Science as Culture, Vol. 5 (Part 2), No. 23 (1995), 218-47. While they cannot be discussed here, differences in these calls to rationalization should not be glossed over, as they may indicate a variety of configurations of concerns (to move away from judgement, to address managerial concerns, and so on) and of the need for these tools to provide an interface between science and policy. The particular version of the HBP's need for a coordinated effort makes the project less urgent, but might also make it less threatening to scientists who fear imposed standards and control from above - fears which are often heard in discussions of the Human Brain Project (see, for example, Purpura, op. cit. note 2). Fears, and resistance to the imposition of standards and the requirement to make data available in publicly accessible databases (a common practice in many molecular biology settings) are at the root of a controversy currently raging in the functional imaging community: see the Editorial, 'A Debate Over fMRI Data Sharing', Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 3, No. 9 (September 2000), 845-46.
67. This is the scenario as articulated by Bloom, op. cit. note 33, and paraphrased in Huerta & Kuslow, op. cit. note 2, S4.
68. This is the scenario as articulated by Bloom, op. cit. note 33, and paraphrased in Huerta & Kuslow, op. cit. note 2, S4.
69. Bloom, op. cit. note 33; Michael F. Huerta, Stephen H. Koslow and Alan Leshner, 'The Human Brain Project: An International Resource', Trends in Neurosciences, Vol. 16, No. 11 (November 1993), 436-38; Jerome Cox, 'Foreword', in Huerta & Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics, op. cit. note 2, vii-x.
70. Bloom, op. cit. note 33; Michael F. Huerta, Stephen H. Koslow and Alan Leshner, 'The Human Brain Project: An International Resource', Trends in Neurosciences, Vol. 16, No. 11 (November 1993), 436-38; Jerome Cox, 'Foreword', in Huerta & Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics, op. cit. note 2, vii-x.
71. Bloom, op. cit. note 33; Michael F. Huerta, Stephen H. Koslow and Alan Leshner, 'The Human Brain Project: An International Resource', Trends in Neurosciences, Vol. 16, No. 11 (November 1993), 436-38; Jerome Cox, 'Foreword', in Huerta & Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics, op. cit. note 2, vii-x.
72. In preparation for the Decade of the Brain launch, a number of reports had been commissioned. One of these was sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health, and was written by Stephen H. Koslow (1989). The report addressed the development of a 'National Neural Circuitry Database', an idea that was originally proposed in the late 1970s but abandoned because of a lack of technological means to achieve it (see Huerta, Koslow & Leshner, op. cit.
73. In preparation for the Decade of the Brain launch, a number of reports had been commissioned. One of these was sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health, and was written by Stephen H. Koslow (1989). The report addressed the development of a 'National Neural Circuitry Database', an idea that was originally proposed in the late 1970s but abandoned because of a lack of technological means to achieve it (see Huerta, Koslow & Leshner, op. cit. note 36) and lack of consensus about the features to be included (see Cox, op. cit. note 36). Following Stephen H. Koslow's report, a committee was set up by the NIMH to address the 'feasibility and utility of incorporating computer technology into the basic and clinical neurosciences in order to enhance research progress' (Pechura & Martin, op. cit. note 2, v).
74. In preparation for the Decade of the Brain launch, a number of reports had been commissioned. One of these was sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health, and was written by Stephen H. Koslow (1989). The report addressed the development of a 'National Neural Circuitry Database', an idea that was originally proposed in the late 1970s but abandoned because of a lack of technological means to achieve it (see Huerta, Koslow & Leshner, op. cit. note 36) and lack of consensus about the features to be included (see Cox, op. cit. note 36). Following Stephen H. Koslow's report, a committee was set up by the NIMH to address the 'feasibility and utility of incorporating computer technology into the basic and clinical neurosciences in order to enhance research progress' (Pechura & Martin, op. cit. note 2, v).
75. In preparation for the Decade of the Brain launch, a number of reports had been commissioned. One of these was sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health, and was written by Stephen H. Koslow (1989). The report addressed the development of a 'National Neural Circuitry Database', an idea that was originally proposed in the late 1970s but abandoned because of a lack of technological means to achieve it (see Huerta, Koslow & Leshner, op. cit. note 36) and lack of consensus about the features to be included (see Cox, op. cit. note 36). Following Stephen H. Koslow's report, a committee was set up by the NIMH to address the 'feasibility and utility of incorporating computer technology into the basic and clinical neurosciences in order to enhance research progress' (Pechura & Martin, op. cit. note 2, v).
76. Pechura & Martin, op. cit. note 2, 21-22.
77. Huerta, Koslow & Leshner, op. cit. note 36.
78. Proponents of neuroinformatics have sought and established links internationally. In 1995, a workshop on neuroinformatics was held through the US-EC Task Force on Biotechnology Research. Calls of the American-based project for 'the integration of research from the molecular and cellular levels up to the system level' were echoed at this meeting: Matthiessen, op. cit. note 32. On the international scene, in the late 1990s, the OECD Megascience Forum endorsed a proposal from the USA to establish a 'Biological Informatics Working Group', with neuroinformatics as one of its subgroups.
79. Gibbons, op. cit. note 33, 1873.
80. Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991), esp. Chapter 9, 'Situated Knowledge: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective', 183-220.
81. Pechura & Martin, op. cit. note 2, 12.
82. Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 677.
83. John Mazziotta and Arthur Toga, 'Speculations about the Future', in Arthur Toga and John Mazziotta (eds), Human Brain Mapping: the Methods (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1996), 445-56, at 455.
84. Arthur Toga and Paul Thompson's web page, 'Multimodal Brain Atlases', Laboratory of Neuroimaging: 〈http://www.loni.ucla.edu/∼thompson/whole_atlas.html〉 (accessed 12 January 2001).
85. These quotations are respectively from Arthur Toga and John Mazziotta, 'Introduction to the Cartography of the Brain', in Toga & Mazziotta (eds), op. cit. note 45, 3-25, at 13;
86. and Per Roland and Karl Zilles, 'Brain Atlases - a New Research Tool', Trends in Neurosciences, Vol. 17, No. 11 (November 1994), 458-67, at 466.
87. Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information (Cheshire, CT: Graphic Press, 1983); Denis Wood, The Power of Maps (London: Routledge, 1993); David Turnbull (with Helen Watson and the Yolngu Community at Yirrkala), Maps are Territories: Science is an Atlas (Geelong, Victoria: Deakin University Press, 1989; Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993).
88. Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information (Cheshire, CT: Graphic Press, 1983); Denis Wood, The Power of Maps (London: Routledge, 1993); David Turnbull (with Helen Watson and the Yolngu Community at Yirrkala), Maps are Territories: Science is an Atlas (Geelong, Victoria: Deakin University Press, 1989; Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993).
89. Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information (Cheshire, CT: Graphic Press, 1983); Denis Wood, The Power of Maps (London: Routledge, 1993); David Turnbull (with Helen Watson and the Yolngu Community at Yirrkala), Maps are Territories: Science is an Atlas (Geelong, Victoria: Deakin University Press, 1989; Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993).
90. Alan Evans, Sean Marrett and Terry Peters, 'Anatomical-functional Correlative Analysis of the Human Brain Using Three-Dimensional Imaging System' (Abstract), Proceedings of the International Society for Optical Engineering, Medical Imagery, Vol. III, No. 264 (1989), 274; Alan Evans, Sean Marrett, Peter Neelin, Keith Worsley, Weiquan Dai, Sylvain Millot, Ernst Meyer and Daniel Bub, 'Anatomical Mapping of Functional Activation in Stereotactic Coordinate Space', NeuroImage, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1992), 43-53.
91. Alan Evans, Sean Marrett and Terry Peters, 'Anatomical-functional Correlative Analysis of the Human Brain Using Three-Dimensional Imaging System' (Abstract), Proceedings of the International Society for Optical Engineering, Medical Imagery, Vol. III, No. 264 (1989), 274; Alan Evans, Sean Marrett, Peter Neelin, Keith Worsley, Weiquan Dai, Sylvain Millot, Ernst Meyer and Daniel Bub, 'Anatomical Mapping of Functional Activation in Stereotactic Coordinate Space', NeuroImage, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1992), 43-53.
92. The atlases could also be improved by being based on imaging, since atlases arising from invasive techniques, like intra-operative stimulation, could not be relied on to provide data about the 'intact' brain. Furthermore, these techniques are only used on subjects that have cerebral abnormalities, so that data from these sources can only be compared with, but should not be considered typical of, normal brain structure and function: see John Mazziotta, Arthur Toga, Alan Evans, Peter Fox and Jack Lancaster, 'Atlases of the Human Brain', in Huerta & Koslow (eds), Neuroinformatics, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 8, 255-308.
93. Researchers from three more institutions have joined the efforts of the Consortium to contribute specific expertise for their next programme grant to be funded by the Human Brain Project (1998-2003): Albert Einstein College, Heinrich-Hein University of Dusseldorf, and Stanford University.
94. This atlas can be viewed at 〈http://www.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/cgi/icbm_view/〉. It is alternately described as being composed of 302, 305 or 450 brains: 450 is the expected goal, the other two numbers appearing seemingly at random. This probably reflects the data management issues that arise when trying to discipline data for integration, and the difficulty in working with a system that gets updated all the time, while trying to use it as a reference.
95. Mazziotta et al., op. cit. note 50, 291.
96. ICBM, A Probabilistic Reference System for the Human Brain. Renewal Application to the Human Brain Project: Phase 1 (unpublished Research Grant Application, 1997). Large portions of this document can be consulted online at the ICBM website: 〈www.loni.ucla.edu/ICBM〉.
97. Mazziotta et al., op. cit. note 50, 258.
98. See Trudy Dehue, 'Deception, Efficiency and Random Groups: Psychology and the Gradual Origination of the Random Group Design', Isis, Vol. 88 (1997), 653-73, on the careful randomization of the social sciences. While this was not an explicit methodological concern of the researchers, on the other hand, a kind of spontaneous or natural 'randomization' was expected to occur, as the different centres selected from their local environment. Researchers claimed that it would not aim to characterize an entire population, but to demonstrate the feasibility of doing so. But eventually, the data will 'be representative of the population with regard to gender and race and will specifically examine the effects of handedness and gender on structural and functional brain variance' (ICBM, op. cit. note 54, 255). Appealing to the first, prototypical phase of a tool is a common strategy in the development of new technologies. Requirements to address sociologically important questions are minimized and delegated to a future, unspecified time period, while the current appeal of the potential of the tool is maximized. Here too, the notion of a population-based atlas evokes population-wide applicability and relevance of such projects: for an exposition of the prototype strategy, see Jessika van Kammen, Conceiving Contraceptives The Involvement of Users in Anti-fertility Vaccines Development (unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Science and Technology Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, 2000). Other differences, such as race, weight or height are expected to be 'randomized' within the data set.
99. See Trudy Dehue, 'Deception, Efficiency and Random Groups: Psychology and the Gradual Origination of the Random Group Design', Isis, Vol. 88 (1997), 653-73, on the careful randomization of the social sciences. While this was not an explicit methodological concern of the researchers, on the other hand, a kind of spontaneous or natural 'randomization' was expected to occur, as the different centres selected from their local environment. Researchers claimed that it would not aim to characterize an entire population, but to demonstrate the feasibility of doing so. But eventually, the data will 'be representative of the population with regard to gender and race and will specifically examine the effects of handedness and gender on structural and functional brain variance' (ICBM, op. cit. note 54, 255). Appealing to the first, prototypical phase of a tool is a common strategy in the development of new technologies. Requirements to address sociologically important questions are minimized and delegated to a future, unspecified time period, while the current appeal of the potential of the tool is maximized. Here too, the notion of a population-based atlas evokes population-wide applicability and relevance of such projects: for an exposition of the prototype strategy, see Jessika van Kammen, Conceiving Contraceptives The Involvement of Users in Anti-fertility Vaccines Development (unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Science and Technology Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, 2000). Other differences, such as race, weight or height are expected to be 'randomized' within the data set.
100. Anne Harrington, Medicine, Mind and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth-century Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
101. For the relation of brain scanning to notions of self, see: Joseph Dumit, 'A Digital Image of the Category of the Person: PET Scanning and Objective Self-Fashioning', in Gary Lee Downey and Joseph Dumit (eds), Cyborgs and Citadels: Anthropological Interventions in Technoscience (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1997), 87-128; Anne Beaulieu, The Self on Screen (unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Bath, 2001). For the notion of 'convergence', see Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 659; and Geoffrey C. Bowker, Science on the Run: Information Management and Industrial Geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920-1940 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 162-66.
102. For the relation of brain scanning to notions of self, see: Joseph Dumit, 'A Digital Image of the Category of the Person: PET Scanning and Objective Self-Fashioning', in Gary Lee Downey and Joseph Dumit (eds), Cyborgs and Citadels: Anthropological Interventions in Technoscience (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1997), 87-128; Anne Beaulieu, The Self on Screen (unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Bath, 2001). For the notion of 'convergence', see Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 659; and Geoffrey C. Bowker, Science on the Run: Information Management and Industrial Geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920-1940 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 162-66.
103. For the relation of brain scanning to notions of self, see: Joseph Dumit, 'A Digital Image of the Category of the Person: PET Scanning and Objective Self-Fashioning', in Gary Lee Downey and Joseph Dumit (eds), Cyborgs and Citadels: Anthropological Interventions in Technoscience (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1997), 87-128; Anne Beaulieu, The Self on Screen (unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Bath, 2001). For the notion of 'convergence', see Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 659; and Geoffrey C. Bowker, Science on the Run: Information Management and Industrial Geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920-1940 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 162-66.
104. For the relation of brain scanning to notions of self, see: Joseph Dumit, 'A Digital Image of the Category of the Person: PET Scanning and Objective Self-Fashioning', in Gary Lee Downey and Joseph Dumit (eds), Cyborgs and Citadels: Anthropological Interventions in Technoscience (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1997), 87-128; Anne Beaulieu, The Self on Screen (unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Bath, 2001). For the notion of 'convergence', see Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 659; and Geoffrey C. Bowker, Science on the Run: Information Management and Industrial Geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920-1940 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 162-66.
105. Susan Leigh Star, Regions of the Mind: Brain Research and the Quest for Scientific Certainty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989). A number of examples of 'multiple specimens use' can be found through this book.
106. Per Roland, C. Graufelds, J. Wahlin, L. Ingelman, M. Andersson, A. Ledberg, J. Pedersen, S. Akerman, A. Dabringhaus and Karl Zilles, 'Human Brain Atlas: For High-Resolution Functional and Anatomical Mapping', Human Brain Mapping, Vol. 1 (1994), 173-84.
107. Eliminating the embodied user may on occasion be a displacement rather than a disappearance: instead of a trained anatomist, the use, or at least installation, of these programmes might require an embodied software expert.
108. Pechura & Martin, op. cit. note 2, 11, 14. As noted above, some of these features are traditional categories of neuroscience specifically, or of modern biomedicine more generally.
109. ICBM, op. cit. note 54, 153.
110. Up to now, age has been the most determinant feature, because of the research practices of recruiting young volunteers, and because of the clinical conditions investigated in relation to the atlas. Young brains were selected in the first instance, partly to provide age-matched controls for the activations studies, which often use university students as subjects. The age range for the first phase was from 18 to 40, and this will be extended to 90, as the Consortium focuses on studies of diseases of old age, 'because [the age range] conforms with the normal control population recommendations for the study of Alzheimer's and degenerative diseases of the brain'. This will also allow the comparison of data across seven decades and determine variance as a function of age: ICBM, op. cit. note 54, 248.
111. Mazziotta et al., op. cit. note 50, 260.
112. Francis Crick and Edward Jones, 'Backwardness of Human Neuroanatomy', Nature, Vol. 361 (14 January 1993), 109-10; Albert M. Galaburda, Marjorie LeMay, Thomas L. Kemper and Norman Geschwind, 'Right-Left Asymmetries in the Brain', Science, Vol. 199 (24 February 1978), 852-56.
113. Francis Crick and Edward Jones, 'Backwardness of Human Neuroanatomy', Nature, Vol. 361 (14 January 1993), 109-10; Albert M. Galaburda, Marjorie LeMay, Thomas L. Kemper and Norman Geschwind, 'Right-Left Asymmetries in the Brain', Science, Vol. 199 (24 February 1978), 852-56.
114. Galaburda et al., ibid., 856. I briefly return to this issue in the Conclusion.
115. Mazziotta et al., op. cit. note 50, 288.
116. Quoted in Sekula, op. cit. note 24, at 47.
117. Just as statements about the number of brains in the average atlas vary, so do estimates of the number of centres using this atlas: numbers range from 35 centres (Mazziotta et al., op. cit. note 50, 561) to 100 in ICBM's Proposal (op. cit. note 54, 208).
118. Peter Fox and Marty Woldorff, 'Integrating Human Brain Maps', Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Vol. 4 (1994), 151-56.
119. This can be found in Greg Ward, Internal Guide to ICBM (unpublished manuscript, Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Hospital, 1996); Maziotta et al., op. cit. note 50; Richard Frackowiak, Karl Friston, Christopher Frith, Ray Dolan and John Mazziotta (eds), Human Brain Function (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1997); Toga & Mazziotta (eds), op. cit. note 45. Another aspect of the perceived greater complexity of the brain was also formulated by contrasting terrestrial and cerebral cartography: structures in the depth of the brain (cortical folds) must also be represented, hence showing surfaces as problematic, since they do not reveal these, leading to recommendations for 3D representations: see Swanson, op. cit. note 26.
120. This can be found in Greg Ward, Internal Guide to ICBM (unpublished manuscript, Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Hospital, 1996); Maziotta et al., op. cit. note 50; Richard Frackowiak, Karl Friston, Christopher Frith, Ray Dolan and John Mazziotta (eds), Human Brain Function (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1997); Toga & Mazziotta (eds), op. cit. note 45. Another aspect of the perceived greater complexity of the brain was also formulated by contrasting terrestrial and cerebral cartography: structures in the depth of the brain (cortical folds) must also be represented, hence showing surfaces as problematic, since they do not reveal these, leading to recommendations for 3D representations: see Swanson, op. cit. note 26.
121. This can be found in Greg Ward, Internal Guide to ICBM (unpublished manuscript, Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Hospital, 1996); Maziotta et al., op. cit. note 50; Richard Frackowiak, Karl Friston, Christopher Frith, Ray Dolan and John Mazziotta (eds), Human Brain Function (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1997); Toga & Mazziotta (eds), op. cit. note 45. Another aspect of the perceived greater complexity of the brain was also formulated by contrasting terrestrial and cerebral cartography: structures in the depth of the brain (cortical folds) must also be represented, hence showing surfaces as problematic, since they do not reveal these, leading to recommendations for 3D representations: see Swanson, op. cit. note 26.
122. This can be found in Greg Ward, Internal Guide to ICBM (unpublished manuscript, Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Hospital, 1996); Maziotta et al., op. cit. note 50; Richard Frackowiak, Karl Friston, Christopher Frith, Ray Dolan and John Mazziotta (eds), Human Brain Function (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1997); Toga & Mazziotta (eds), op. cit. note 45. Another aspect of the perceived greater complexity of the brain was also formulated by contrasting terrestrial and cerebral cartography: structures in the depth of the brain (cortical folds) must also be represented, hence showing surfaces as problematic, since they do not reveal these, leading to recommendations for 3D representations: see Swanson, op. cit. note 26.
123. Toga & Thompson, loc. cit. note 46 (accessed 12 January 2001).
124. Mazziotta et al., op. cit. note 50, 259.
125. George Canguilhem, trans. Carolyn Fawcett, On the Normal and the Pathological (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1978), 70.
126. Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 646, 669; see also note 52.
127. Another interesting line of inquiry here would be to follow the process by which imaging data has become part of the required evidence to be produced in clinical trials.
128. The MNI space encompasses only the brain, thereby ignoring lesions in the spinal chord. This is but one unintended consequence of brain mapping's focus on the cortex.
129. MRI detects a signal at the molecular level, and these signals can be used to contrast different substances that make up the brain and head.
130. Anja Hiddinga, Changing Normality: Pregnancy and Scientific Knowledge Claims 1920-1950, with Special Reference to the USA (unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Science and Technology Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, 1995).
131. Bruno Latour, 'Drawing Things Together', in Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 19-68.
132. ICBM, op. cit. note 54, 210.
133. Nancy C. Andreasen, Stephan Arndt, Victor Swayze II, Ted Cizadlo, Michael Flaum, Daniel O'Leary, James C. Erhardt and William T.C. Yuh, 'Thalamic Abnormalities in Schizophrenia Visualized through Magnetic Resonance Image Averaging', Science, Vol. 266 (14 October 1994), 294-98, at 295.
134. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21, 94. As anatomy shifted from a description of structures to an anatomy based on interpretation of symptoms and their relation to anatomical lesions, medical atlases came to represent these new relations in 'characteristic' representations, so that they might be learned and recognized by medical practitioners: see Audrey B. Davis, Medicine and Its Technology: An Introduction to the History of Medical Instrumentation (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), esp. 91, 155.
135. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21, 94. As anatomy shifted from a description of structures to an anatomy based on interpretation of symptoms and their relation to anatomical lesions, medical atlases came to represent these new relations in 'characteristic' representations, so that they might be learned and recognized by medical practitioners: see Audrey B. Davis, Medicine and Its Technology: An Introduction to the History of Medical Instrumentation (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), esp. 91, 155.
136. Alongside this approach to objectivity through automation, I also observed a number of (local?) strategies for using or checking on the automated process. Some types of scans were expected to be processed unsuccessfully, because they had been made according to non-conforming scanning procedures (for example, they are clinical and not research scans), and some types of brains were expected to fail (because of pathology). Users of automated software would call up images from different stages of analysis, to run little tests to check what had been changed in the image data. In cases where the reasons for failures could be typified, attempts to deal with these structurally were made.
137. Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 655.
138. The determination of common standards of normality involves agreeing on a measurement space, as amply discussed above. Another aspect of this process is the calibration of instruments used in measurement. While this aspect will not be discussed here for the sake of clarity and brevity, the calibration of instruments through the use of 'phantoms' (either real, standard objects, or else data-sets to be processed) which enable different centres to evaluate the performance of their instrumentation, is part of the work pursued under HBP grants, and also has some roots in the work of neuroimagers in the 1980s. See: John Mazziotta and Stephen Koslow, 'Assessment of Goals and Obstacles in Data Acquisition and Analysis from Emission Tomography: Report of a Series of International Workshops', Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, Vol. 7 (1987), A51-A56; Stanley I. Rapoport, 'Discussion of PET Workshop Reports, Including Recommendations of PET Data Analysis Work Group', ibid., Vol. 11 (1991), A140-A146. See also Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73, at 130-36, for a discussion in a context of bodily measurements/biometrics; and Knorr Cetina (52-55) and Traweek (46-73), opera cit. note 9, for further discussions of calibration in another physics instrumentation context.
139. The determination of common standards of normality involves agreeing on a measurement space, as amply discussed above. Another aspect of this process is the calibration of instruments used in measurement. While this aspect will not be discussed here for the sake of clarity and brevity, the calibration of instruments through the use of 'phantoms' (either real, standard objects, or else data-sets to be processed) which enable different centres to evaluate the performance of their instrumentation, is part of the work pursued under HBP grants, and also has some roots in the work of neuroimagers in the 1980s. See: John Mazziotta and Stephen Koslow, 'Assessment of Goals and Obstacles in Data Acquisition and Analysis from Emission Tomography: Report of a Series of International Workshops', Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, Vol. 7 (1987), A51-A56; Stanley I. Rapoport, 'Discussion of PET Workshop Reports, Including Recommendations of PET Data Analysis Work Group', ibid., Vol. 11 (1991), A140-A146. See also Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73, at 130-36, for a discussion in a context of bodily measurements/biometrics; and Knorr Cetina (52-55) and Traweek (46-73), opera cit. note 9, for further discussions of calibration in another physics instrumentation context.
140. The determination of common standards of normality involves agreeing on a measurement space, as amply discussed above. Another aspect of this process is the calibration of instruments used in measurement. While this aspect will not be discussed here for the sake of clarity and brevity, the calibration of instruments through the use of 'phantoms' (either real, standard objects, or else data-sets to be processed) which enable different centres to evaluate the performance of their instrumentation, is part of the work pursued under HBP grants, and also has some roots in the work of neuroimagers in the 1980s. See: John Mazziotta and Stephen Koslow, 'Assessment of Goals and Obstacles in Data Acquisition and Analysis from Emission Tomography: Report of a Series of International Workshops', Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, Vol. 7 (1987), A51-A56; Stanley I. Rapoport, 'Discussion of PET Workshop Reports, Including Recommendations of PET Data Analysis Work Group', ibid., Vol. 11 (1991), A140-A146. See also Joseph O'Connell, 'Metrology: The Creation of Universality by the Circulation of Particulars', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 1 (February 1993), 129-73, at 130-36, for a discussion in a context of bodily measurements/biometrics; and Knorr Cetina (52-55) and Traweek (46-73), opera cit. note 9, for further discussions of calibration in another physics instrumentation context.
141. Huerta & Koslow (1996), op. cit. note 2, S5.
142. ICBM, op. cit. note 54, 211.
143. Paul Thompson, David McDonald, Michael S. Mega, Alan Evans and Arthur Toga, 'Detection of Abnormal Brain Structures with a Probabilistic Atlas of Cortical Surfaces', Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography, Vol. 21 (1997), 567-81, at 579.
144. A level of 'cognitive familiarity' has been shown to play a rôle in circulation of systems of classification and knowledge claims: see Hiddinga, op. cit. note 80, esp. 184-89. For an extensive elaboration of how to study 'cognitive familiarity', see also Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago, IL & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1997). By producing results in a form clinicians already use, these kinds of atlases (effectively databases of scans) are expected to be more acceptable to these users.
145. A level of 'cognitive familiarity' has been shown to play a rôle in circulation of systems of classification and knowledge claims: see Hiddinga, op. cit. note 80, esp. 184-89. For an extensive elaboration of how to study 'cognitive familiarity', see also Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago, IL & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1997). By producing results in a form clinicians already use, these kinds of atlases (effectively databases of scans) are expected to be more acceptable to these users.
146. ICBM, op. cit. note 54, 150-55.
147. Ibid., 151.
148. Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 666-67.
149. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21; Michael Lynch, 'The Externalised Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 81, 153-86.
150. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21; Michael Lynch, 'The Externalised Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 81, 153-86.
151. Roland & Zilles, op. cit. note 47, 458.
152. To compare these two archives is to link analytically two historically distant projects that both aimed at finding distinction between groups. The politics of the first, so clear to us in hindsight and so broadly condemned, are not meant to indict the second case but, rather, by juxtaposing the first with its highly exposed politics to the second, the aim is to highlight the need for an equally careful functional and political analysis of contemporary archives.
153. Sekula, op. cit. note 24, 17ff. The photographic archive arises in conjunction with the emerging social science of criminology and the professionalization of police work.
154. See John Tagg, 'Power and Photography: Part One, A Means of Surveillance: The Photograph as Evidence in Law', Screen Education, Vol. 36 (Autumn 1980), 17-55, and 'Part Two, A Legal Reality: The Photograph as Property in Law', ibid., Vol. 37 (Winter 1980), 17-27; Sekula, op. cit. note 24.
155. See John Tagg, 'Power and Photography: Part One, A Means of Surveillance: The Photograph as Evidence in Law', Screen Education, Vol. 36 (Autumn 1980), 17-55, and 'Part Two, A Legal Reality: The Photograph as Property in Law', ibid., Vol. 37 (Winter 1980), 17-27; Sekula, op. cit. note 24.
156. This is literally so: Bertillon's system was developed for the application of anthropometry to police work, namely the catching of criminals.
157. Sekula, op. cit. note 24, 26.
158. According to Sekula (ibid., 53-55), the downfall of these efforts to develop systems of photographic documentation and administration was caused by the cumbersome nature of the processing of suspects, the rise of fingerprinting as an easier system and, more generally, the demise of an optical model of empiricism.
159. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21, 84-85. See Bernike Pasveer, 'Knowledge of Shadows: the Introduction of X-ray Images in Medicine', Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 1989), 360-81; Pasveer describes this as a socially-constructed (not mainly a cognitive) process of meaning-making, where context and content are only progressively shaped as (separate) entities. For other descriptions of learning to see and seeing socially, see also: Charles Goodwin, 'Seeing in Depth', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 25, No. 2 (May 1995), 237-74; Goodwin, 'Professional Vision', American Anthropologist, Vol. 96, No. 3 (September 1994), 606-33.
160. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21, 84-85. See Bernike Pasveer, 'Knowledge of Shadows: the Introduction of X-ray Images in Medicine', Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 1989), 360-81; Pasveer describes this as a socially-constructed (not mainly a cognitive) process of meaning-making, where context and content are only progressively shaped as (separate) entities. For other descriptions of learning to see and seeing socially, see also: Charles Goodwin, 'Seeing in Depth', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 25, No. 2 (May 1995), 237-74; Goodwin, 'Professional Vision', American Anthropologist, Vol. 96, No. 3 (September 1994), 606-33.
161. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21, 84-85. See Bernike Pasveer, 'Knowledge of Shadows: the Introduction of X-ray Images in Medicine', Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 1989), 360-81; Pasveer describes this as a socially-constructed (not mainly a cognitive) process of meaning-making, where context and content are only progressively shaped as (separate) entities. For other descriptions of learning to see and seeing socially, see also: Charles Goodwin, 'Seeing in Depth', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 25, No. 2 (May 1995), 237-74; Goodwin, 'Professional Vision', American Anthropologist, Vol. 96, No. 3 (September 1994), 606-33.
162. Daston & Galison, op. cit. note 21, 84-85. See Bernike Pasveer, 'Knowledge of Shadows: the Introduction of X-ray Images in Medicine', Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 1989), 360-81; Pasveer describes this as a socially-constructed (not mainly a cognitive) process of meaning-making, where context and content are only progressively shaped as (separate) entities. For other descriptions of learning to see and seeing socially, see also: Charles Goodwin, 'Seeing in Depth', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 25, No. 2 (May 1995), 237-74; Goodwin, 'Professional Vision', American Anthropologist, Vol. 96, No. 3 (September 1994), 606-33.
163. Arthur Toga and Paul Thompson, 'Brain Atlases and Registration', in Isaac Bankman (ed.), Handbook of Medical Image Processing (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998), 1-19, at 6.
164. Mazziotta et al., op. cit. note 50.
165. See Anne Beaulieu, The Space inside the Skull: Digital Representations, Brain Mapping and Cognitive Neuroscience in the Decade of the Brain (unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Science and Technology Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, 2000), 166-82.
166. Jonathan Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
167. Bowker & Star, op. cit. note 12, 46-49.
168. For an analysis of these techniques of objectivity, see Trudy Dehue, 'From Deception Trials to Control Reagents: The Introduction of the Control Group about a Century Ago', American Psychologist, Vol. 55, No.2 (February 2000), 264-68; Lorraine Daston, 'Objectivity and the Escape from Perspective', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 22, No. 4 (November 1992), 597-618; Alain Desrosières, La Politique des Grands Nombres: Histoire de la Raison Statistique (Paris: La Découverte, 1993).
169. For an analysis of these techniques of objectivity, see Trudy Dehue, 'From Deception Trials to Control Reagents: The Introduction of the Control Group about a Century Ago', American Psychologist, Vol. 55, No.2 (February 2000), 264-68; Lorraine Daston, 'Objectivity and the Escape from Perspective', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 22, No. 4 (November 1992), 597-618; Alain Desrosières, La Politique des Grands Nombres: Histoire de la Raison Statistique (Paris: La Découverte, 1993).
170. For an analysis of these techniques of objectivity, see Trudy Dehue, 'From Deception Trials to Control Reagents: The Introduction of the Control Group about a Century Ago', American Psychologist, Vol. 55, No.2 (February 2000), 264-68; Lorraine Daston, 'Objectivity and the Escape from Perspective', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 22, No. 4 (November 1992), 597-618; Alain Desrosières, La Politique des Grands Nombres: Histoire de la Raison Statistique (Paris: La Découverte, 1993).
171. A term coined to characterize WWW advances: see Daniel Atkins, 'Electronic Collaboratories and Digital Libraries', NeuroImage, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1996), S55-S58.
172. Latour, op. cit. note 81, 52-60. This cascade is not unidirectional, however, since the use and application of the atlases rely on being able to relate to the individual case. Clinical relevance constitutes an important element in this research. This has not always been the case; the clinical relevance of neuroscience seems to have been an important trend in the increased public visibility of the neurosciences in the 1990s: see Edward G. Jones, 'Neuroscience in the Modern Era', Neuroscience Newsletter, Society for Neuroscience (January/February 2000), 5-11.
173. Latour, op. cit. note 81, 52-60. This cascade is not unidirectional, however, since the use and application of the atlases rely on being able to relate to the individual case. Clinical relevance constitutes an important element in this research. This has not always been the case; the clinical relevance of neuroscience seems to have been an important trend in the increased public visibility of the neurosciences in the 1990s: see Edward G. Jones, 'Neuroscience in the Modern Era', Neuroscience Newsletter, Society for Neuroscience (January/February 2000), 5-11.
174. Roland & Zilles, op. cit. note 47, 459.
175. Gordon M. Shepherd, Jason S. Mirsky, Matthew D. Healy, Michael S. Singer, Emmanouil Skoufos, Michael S. Hines, Prakask M. Nadkarni and Perry L. Miller, 'The Human Brain Project: Neuroinformatics Tools for Integrating, Searching and Modelling Multi-Disciplinary Neuroscience Data', Trends in Neurosciences, Vol. 21, No. 11 (November 1998), 460-68.
176. Fujimura & Fortun, op. cit. note 8.
177. Lynch, op. cit. note 19, 55.
178. The fieldwork material used in this article comes from my two periods of study in two leading functional imaging laboratories, and from observations and interviews at various international events in the brain-mapping community (1996-2001). Much of the information which informs this study is drawn from discussions and more formal in-depth interviews done during a 6-month period of fieldwork in two laboratories in Europe (lab E) and in North America (lab NA). The North American lab was actively involved in databasing endeavours. Permission to tape-record the interviews was granted, and anonymity was promised to the interviewees. They were described in terms of their seniority and disciplinary background; the latter is relevant to understanding the new field of brain mapping since, until very recently, no one had received their education or primary training in this field. This verbatim quotation is from an interview with a senior researcher, trained as a neurophysiologist (lab NA, December 1997).
179. Sekula, op. cit. note 24, 55.
180. Bowker, op. cit. note 11, 648, 652.
181. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).
182. This element has recently become much more public with the announcement of a new database, linked to publishing in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, so that submissions to the journal will entail submission of data to the database. For a glimpse of these issues in print, see Editorial, op. cit. note 34.
183. Fox & Lancaster, op. cit. note 30; Shepherd et al., op. cit. note 113; Michael Chicurel, 'Databasing the Brain', Nature, Vol. 406 (24 August 2000), 822-25.
184. Fox & Lancaster, op. cit. note 30; Shepherd et al., op. cit. note 113; Michael Chicurel, 'Databasing the Brain', Nature, Vol. 406 (24 August 2000), 822-25.
185. Fox & Lancaster, op. cit. note 30; Shepherd et al., op. cit. note 113; Michael Chicurel, 'Databasing the Brain', Nature, Vol. 406 (24 August 2000), 822-25.
186. As well, even those who embrace and contribute to the project of the ICBM sometimes resist the full application of the logic of a probabilistic database; the users of these atlases require a certain obduracy. While praised for having 'open data structures', and therefore continuously improving statistics, a system of 'quarantine' has been developed around the ICBM database, so that users might have a reasonably stable basis on which to perform analyses. This requires careful weighting of the potential benefits of improvements to the analysis software (the elements of the pipeline), and the need for robustness and stability of a research tool in the course of pursuing a research project. The structure of research and scientific publishing may come to change to fit this type of tool but currently, the traditional data-gathering, analysis and paper-writing cycle, lasting a few months, does not accommodate frequent update of tools.
187. Other projects in the HBP have opted for an object-based structure, where links between units of knowledge are looser, conceptually closer to the traditional 'encyclopaedia', with its entries on various kinds of topics, than these 'atlases', which rely on an ordered data set.
188. This is an epigram to a chapter in Haraway, op. cit. note 13, 131, also noted in Bowker & Star, op. cit. note 12, and credited by Haraway to Helen Watson-Verran, 'Renegotiating What's Natural' (paper read at the Society for Social Studies of Science [4S] Conference, New Orleans, 12-15 October 1994).
189. This is an epigram to a chapter in Haraway, op. cit. note 13, 131, also noted in Bowker & Star, op. cit. note 12, and credited by Haraway to Helen Watson-Verran, 'Renegotiating What's Natural' (paper read at the Society for Social Studies of Science [4S] Conference, New Orleans, 12-15 October 1994).
190. This is an epigram to a chapter in Haraway, op. cit. note 13, 131, also noted in Bowker & Star, op. cit. note 12, and credited by Haraway to Helen Watson-Verran, 'Renegotiating What's Natural' (paper read at the Society for Social Studies of Science [4S] Conference, New Orleans, 12-15 October 1994).
191. Brian Balmer, 'Managing Mapping in the Human Genome Project', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 531-73.