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Volumn 58, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 357-379

Theophrastus on lyngurium: Medieval and early modern lore from the classical lapidary tradition

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ETHNIC GROUP; HISTORY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; UROLITHIASIS;

EID: 0035471141     PISSN: 00033790     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/000337900110041371     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (15)

References (170)
  • 1
    • 26644435458 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • trans. by Jacob Stern Wauconda, IL
    • Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales, trans. by Jacob Stern (Wauconda, IL, 1996), p. 29.
    • (1996) On Unbelievable Tales , pp. 29
    • Palaephatus1
  • 2
    • 26644438526 scopus 로고
    • Library
    • 278, ed. by William W. Fortenbaugh, William Wall, et al. Leiden
    • There are a few cases where Theophrastus' name is not mentioned, confirming that it was a piece of established folklore (see Photius, Library, 278, in Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources of his Life, Writings, Thought, and Influence, ed. by William W. Fortenbaugh, William Wall, et al. (Leiden, 1992), II, 155-57). It is fair to say, however, that after the early third century BC and certainly in the post-Greek period, Theophrastus' name is the only one that is spoken in the same breath as lyngurium.
    • (1992) Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources of His Life, Writings, Thought, and Influence , vol.2 , pp. 155-157
    • Photius1
  • 3
    • 20744435404 scopus 로고
    • Theophrastus and the Study of the Intractable: Scientific Method in de lapidibus and de igne
    • ed. by William W. Fortenbaugh and Robert W. Sharples New Brunswick, NJ
    • John Vallance, 'Theophrastus and the Study of the Intractable: Scientific Method in De lapidibus and De igne', in Theophrastean Studies: On Natural Science, Physics and Metaphysics, Ethics, Religion, and Rhetoric, ed. by William W. Fortenbaugh and Robert W. Sharples (New Brunswick, NJ, 1988), p. 36.
    • (1988) Theophrastean Studies: on Natural Science, Physics and Metaphysics, Ethics, Religion, and Rhetoric , pp. 36
    • Vallance, J.1
  • 4
    • 26644433824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vitœ Philosophorum
    • 5.36-57, note 2
    • Diogenes Laertius, Vitœ Philosophorum, 5.36-57, in Theophrastus of Eresus (note 2), I, 20-47. On his studies and early life, see 5.36, 21.
    • Theophrastus of Eresus , vol.1 , pp. 20-47
    • Laertius, D.1
  • 5
    • 26644474501 scopus 로고
    • trans. by D. E. Eichholz Oxford
    • Two modern English editions exist (cited below by their editors): Theophrastus, De lapidibus, trans. by D. E. Eichholz (Oxford, 1965)
    • (1965) De Lapidibus
    • Theophrastus1
  • 8
    • 26644466038 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vallance (note 3), p. 26, suggests that the Aristotelian corpus 'was so fixed in his mind that general methodological excurses were unnecessary'.
  • 9
    • 20744456073 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Historiae I: Plantarum et Animalium
    • note 3
    • A. Gotthelf, 'Historiae I: Plantarum et Animalium', in Theophrastean Studies (note 3), pp. 100-35
    • Theophrastean Studies , pp. 100-135
    • Gotthelf, A.1
  • 10
    • 0042644323 scopus 로고
    • Divide and Explain: The Posterior Analytics in Practice
    • ed. By A. Gotthelf and J. G. Lennox Cambridge
    • J. G. Lennox, 'Divide and Explain: the Posterior Analytics in Practice', in Philosophical Issues in Aristotelian Biology, ed. By A. Gotthelf and J. G. Lennox (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 90-119. I must thank an anonymous reviewer for suggestions on this issue.
    • (1987) Philosophical Issues in Aristotelian Biology , pp. 90-119
    • Lennox, J.G.1
  • 11
    • 26644446631 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 6, and Vallance (note 3), pp. 37-38
    • Theophrastus, De igne (note 6), p. xi, and Vallance (note 3), pp. 37-38.
    • De Igne
    • Theophrastus1
  • 12
    • 26644443104 scopus 로고
    • Theophrastus in the Middle Ages
    • Charles B. Schmitt, 'Theophrastus in the Middle Ages', Viator, 2 (1971), 251-71 (p. 254). What Theophrastus was known for in the Middle Ages was his moralizing treatise on why wise men should remain bachelors.
    • (1971) Viator , vol.2 , pp. 251-271
    • Schmitt, C.B.1
  • 13
    • 0347302786 scopus 로고
    • Wiesbaden
    • Eichholz (note 5), pp. 49-51. Interestingly, a number of the later surviving manuscripts seem to have been copied from the printed editions after the 1497 editio princeps. Eichholz's stemma assigns MS A (thirteenth or fourteenth century) as at least a third-generation copy, so De lapidibus could hypothetically have been available to be translated in the twelfth- to thirteenth-century Scholastic movement, contra Schmitt. MS A is, however, in Greek, as are all the other fifteenth-century MSS and the editions from 1497 to 1577, so all surviving evidence points to the conclusion that De lapidibus' Latin MS circulation was very limited, or, more likely, non-existent. For a complete stemma of Theophrastean physical works, including De lapidibus, see Walter Burnikel, Textgeschichliche Untersuchungen zu Neun Opuscula Theophrasts (Wiesbaden, 1974)
    • (1974) Textgeschichliche Untersuchungen zu Neun Opuscula Theophrasts
    • Burnikel, W.1
  • 15
    • 26644449134 scopus 로고
    • The Lapidary of L'Intelligenza: Its Literary Background
    • n. 5
    • Eichholz (note 5), p. 51, and Caley and Richards (note 5), pp. 11-13. The editio princeps was printed by Aldus Manutius in Venice and the Latin translation by Turnebus appeared a year after he had reprinted the Greek text in Paris. See also Ronnie H. Terpening, 'The Lapidary of L'Intelligenza: Its Literary Background', Neophilologus, 60 (1976), 75-88 (p. 86, n. 5).
    • (1976) Neophilologus , vol.60 , pp. 75-88
    • Terpening, R.H.1
  • 16
    • 61249383524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for his Life, Writings, Thought, and Influence
    • Leiden, hereafter cited as 'Sharples, Sources on Physics'
    • R. W. Sharples, Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for his Life, Writings, Thought, and Influence, vol. 3, pt 1, Sources on Physics (Leiden, 1998), p. 22 (hereafter cited as 'Sharples, Sources on Physics').
    • (1998) Sources on Physics , vol.3 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 22
    • Sharples, R.W.1
  • 17
    • 26644463376 scopus 로고
    • Paris
    • For the Arabic transmission, see below. While Indian scientific literature is vast and largely unknown to the West, there is no mention of lyngurium or Theophrastus in Lois Finot, Les Lapidaires Indiens (Paris, 1896).
    • (1896) Les Lapidaires Indiens
    • Finot, L.1
  • 18
    • 26644459908 scopus 로고
    • India and Scientific Exchanges in Antiquity
    • trans. by D. Woodward, ed. by G. S. Métraux and F. Crouzet New York
    • In general, see J. Filliozat, 'India and Scientific Exchanges in Antiquity', in his The Evolution of Science, trans. by D. Woodward, ed. by G. S. Métraux and F. Crouzet (New York, 1963), pp. 88-105.
    • (1963) The Evolution of Science , pp. 88-105
    • Filliozat, J.1
  • 19
    • 26644465013 scopus 로고
    • Washington, DC, n. 16. Terpening (note 12), p. 76
    • For a convenient list of the attributions and their locations, see Léon Baisier, The Lapidaire Chrétien, its Composition, its Influence, its Sources (Washington, DC, 1936), p. 3, n. 16. Terpening (note 12), p. 76, suggests 146 Roman and 327 foreign authors, although this refers to all thirty-seven books of the Natural History, not just the lapidary books. Pliny says, 'by perusing about 2000 volumes (voluminem circiter duorum milium), very few of which, owing to the abstruseness of their contents, are ever handled by students, we have collected in 36 volumes 20000 noteworthy facts obtained from 100 authors' (NH, preface, p. 17).
    • (1936) The Lapidaire Chrétien, Its Composition, Its Influence, Its Sources , pp. 3
    • Baisier, L.1
  • 20
    • 84974277952 scopus 로고
    • Lapidary Traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: Part I, the Background; the Old English Lapidary
    • Peter Kitson, 'Lapidary Traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: Part I, the Background; the Old English Lapidary', Anglo-Saxon England, 7 (1978), 9-60 (p. 31).
    • (1978) Anglo-Saxon England , vol.7 , pp. 9-60
    • Kitson, P.1
  • 21
    • 0040115009 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Edward Grant, Physical Science in the Middle Ages (New York, 1971), p. 8. Grant notes that the work is filled with references to Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes, and Euclid, as well as Theophrastus, but that '[i]n almost all instances... it is painfully evident that he had no direct acquaintance with the great scientific authors of the past and was but repeating - and very likely distorting - what a slightly earlier compiler had already repeated and distorted from his predecessors'.
    • (1971) Physical Science in the middle Ages , pp. 8
    • Grant, E.1
  • 25
    • 26644461370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1. 611
    • Later lapidaries based directly on Marbode would take fairly large liberty with the information in this poem. The Modena lapidary, for example, while putatively a first generation from Marbode, described Theophrastus as 'one who speaks well', that is, knowledgeably and authoritatively, about lyngurium, but reminds us that is God who has put the colour into the stone ('Theophrastus, qui bien devise/Quel color Dex I a assise', Pannier, p. 105, 11. 811-12). The slightly later Cambridge lapidary will simply call him the 'great author' ('Li bonus auctors Theofrastès', John M. Riddle, Marbode of Rennes' (1035-1123) De Lapidibus Considered as a Medical Treatise, ibid., p. 164, 1. 611).
    • Marbode of Rennes' (1035-1123) de Lapidibus Considered as a Medical Treatise , pp. 164
    • Riddle, J.M.1
  • 26
    • 0346041378 scopus 로고
    • Aristotle's Theory of the Formation of Metals and Minerals
    • On the ideas of exhalation as the generative cause of metals, see D. E. Eichholz, 'Aristotle's Theory of the Formation of Metals and Minerals', Classical Quarterly, 43 (1969), 141-46.
    • (1969) Classical Quarterly , vol.43 , pp. 141-146
    • Eichholz, D.E.1
  • 29
    • 84904149005 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, Bede, in his Explanatio Apocalypsis, spent on average over three times as much space on the chapter which describes stones as on the rest of Revelation (ten Migne columns versus three) and 60% of that commentary on the stones themselves (six of ten columns).
    • Explanatio Apocalypsis
    • Bede1
  • 30
    • 84909149276 scopus 로고
    • Lapidary Traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: Part II, Bede's Explanatio Apocalypsis and related works
    • See Peter Kitson, 'Lapidary Traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: Part II, Bede's Explanatio Apocalypsis and related works', Anglo-Saxon England, 12 (1983), 73-123 (pp. 74-75).
    • (1983) Anglo-Saxon England , vol.12 , pp. 73-123
    • Kitson, P.1
  • 31
    • 84975020597 scopus 로고
    • De Lapidibus
    • 8.1
    • A quite compendious list of medieval encyclopaedists and their works may be found in Baisier (note 15), pp. 13-20. See also Lynn Thorndike, 'De Lapidibus', Ambix, 8.1 (1960), 6-23, which surveys the contents of various European lapidary manuscripts, most of which include the stone lyngurium. Thorndike mentions two unpublished manuscripts, MSS Vienna Lat. 407 and 2301, which begin with this stone, but their text is sadly not reproduced in the article.
    • (1960) Ambix , pp. 6-23
    • Thorndike, L.1
  • 32
    • 26644440110 scopus 로고
    • Lund
    • Arne Zettersten, A Middle English Lapidary (Lund, 1968), pp. 11-12. There are nine surviving English manuscripts from the twelfth century, six from the thirteenth, nine from the fourteenth, and nine from the fifteenth.
    • (1968) A middle English Lapidary , pp. 11-12
    • Zettersten, A.1
  • 33
    • 26644433356 scopus 로고
    • Rezeptliteratur as Fachliteratur
    • ed. by William Eamon Brussels
    • See in general, Jerry Stannard, 'Rezeptliteratur as Fachliteratur', in Studies on Medieval Fachliteratur 6, ed. by William Eamon (Brussels, 1982), pp. 59-73.
    • (1982) Studies on Medieval Fachliteratur , vol.6 , pp. 59-73
    • Stannard, J.1
  • 35
    • 26644466703 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a survey of the relevant stones and the main commentators, see Baisier (note 15), pp. 8-13
    • For a survey of the relevant stones and the main commentators, see Baisier (note 15), pp. 8-13.
  • 37
    • 0043137526 scopus 로고
    • trans. by Dorothy Wyckoff Oxford
    • Albertus Magnus, Book of Minerals, trans. by Dorothy Wyckoff (Oxford, 1967).
    • (1967) Book of Minerals
    • Magnus, A.1
  • 39
    • 26644443348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Trevisa (note 27), p. 825. 'higten' = lie in, are found within; 'ygendrede' = generated (not gendered, although on that issue, see below).
  • 40
    • 26644465458 scopus 로고
    • Leiden, hereafter cited as 'Sharples, Sources on Biology'
    • There is one very puzzling reference to Theophrastus in Bartholomaeus Anglicus (XVIII. 10), on bear hunting. Theophrastus is said to have learned a method of killing a bear in Germany: a hammer is hung outside a honey hole in a tree trunk and the bear batters itself to death by repeatedly pushing it aside to get at the honey. See R. W. Sharples, Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for his Life, Writings, Thought, and Influence, vol. 5, Sources on Biology (Leiden, 1995), 102 (hereafter cited as 'Sharples, Sources on Biology').
    • (1995) Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for His Life, Writings, Thought, and Influence, Vol. 5, Sources on Biology , vol.5 , pp. 102
    • Sharples, R.W.1
  • 43
    • 26644464070 scopus 로고
    • Le Lapidaire d'Aristotle
    • See Ferdinand de Mély, 'Le Lapidaire d'Aristotle', Revue des Études Grecques, 7 (1894) 181-91, who considers it more magical and alchemical than mineralogical.
    • (1894) Revue des Études Grecques , vol.7 , pp. 181-191
    • De Mély, F.1
  • 44
    • 79953987883 scopus 로고
    • Aristoteles de Lapidibus und Arnoldus Saxo
    • Valentin Rose, 'Aristoteles de Lapidibus und Arnoldus Saxo', Zeitschrift fùr Deutsche Altertums, 18 (1875), 321-445, describes it and its derivatives, at least one of which by Arnoldus Saxo, 'De virtutibus lapidum', simply lists lyngurium's usual qualities: electrum coloured, straw attracting, and used for stomach ailments and for fluxum ventris (Rose, p. 439).
    • (1875) Zeitschrift fùr Deutsche Altertums , vol.18 , pp. 321-445
    • Rose, V.1
  • 45
    • 26644456621 scopus 로고
    • Leiden
    • George Sarton believed that Albertus' De mineralibus was 'used extensively by every Latin scholar who concerned himself with chemical and geological subjects', which is all the more interesting because this work apparently does not contain any of the ideas here discussed; see James K. Otte, Alfred of Sareshal's Commentary on the Methora of Aristotle (Leiden, 1988), pp. 11-12. In the process, he took the mystical qualities of stones and interpreted them within an Aristotelian framework;
    • (1988) Alfred of Sareshal's Commentary on the Methora of Aristotle , pp. 11-12
    • Otte, J.K.1
  • 46
    • 26644457135 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Virtus Lapidum. - Zur philosophischen Begrùndung der magischen Wirksamkeit und der physikalischen Beschaffenheit kostbarer Mineralien in der Naturphilosophie Alberts des Grossen
    • 5.1
    • see Udo Reinhold Jeck, 'Virtus Lapidum. - Zur philosophischen Begrùndung der magischen Wirksamkeit und der physikalischen Beschaffenheit kostbarer Mineralien in der Naturphilosophie Alberts des Grossen', Early Science and Medicine, 5.1 (2000), 33-46.
    • (2000) Early Science and Medicine , pp. 33-46
    • Jeck, U.R.1
  • 47
    • 26644432215 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See notes to the manufacture of white and green pigments in Albertus Magnus (note 28), IV. i. 3 (p. 211, n. 7) and IV. i. 6 (p. 225, n. 10).
  • 48
    • 26644456081 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vincent of Beauvais (note 29), VIII. lxxx: 'Lygurium Theophrastus dicit electri colorem habere, paleas attrahere, stomachum dolentem innare, icteritis colorem reparare, fluxum ventris stringere' (I, 534). 'Stomach-flow' is presumably indigestion or diarrhoea. See also Baisier (note 15), pp. 15-30.
  • 51
    • 26644473117 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 31
    • For a survey of the opinion on who this Diocles was, see Sharples, Sources on Biology (note 31), pp. 81-82,
    • Sources on Biology , pp. 81-82
    • Sharples1
  • 52
    • 84905606648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Diocles and the Hippocratic Writings on the Method of Dietetics and the Limits of Causal Explanation
    • ed. by R. Wittern and P. Pellegrin Hildesheim
    • P. J. van der Eijk, 'Diocles and the Hippocratic Writings on the Method of Dietetics and the Limits of Causal Explanation', in Hippokratische Medezin und antike Philosophie, Medizin der Antike 1, ed. by R. Wittern and P. Pellegrin (Hildesheim, 1996), pp. 229-57 (pp. 253-54).
    • (1996) Hippokratische Medezin und Antike Philosophie, Medizin der Antike , vol.1 , pp. 229-257
    • Van Der Eijk, P.J.1
  • 53
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    • Some Mineralogical Problems in Theophrastus' de Lapidibus
    • n.s. 17 Baisier (note 15), pp. 90-92; Caley and Richards (note 5), pp. 109-13
    • For more on the controversy about lyngurium and an alternate identification, see D. E. Eichholz, 'Some Mineralogical Problems in Theophrastus' De Lapidibus', Classical Quarterly, n.s. 17 (1967), 103-09 (pp. 103-04); Baisier (note 15), pp. 90-92; Caley and Richards (note 5), pp. 109-13;
    • (1967) Classical Quarterly , pp. 103-109
    • Eichholz, D.E.1
  • 55
    • 26644451556 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De XII gemmis
    • summarized in Kitson, note 21
    • Baisier suggests that lyngurium was given the false etymology of λυγξ 'lynx' and ουρορονoupoy'urine', and the story developed from there. Eichholz (note 5), p. 108, argues against amber and suggests yellow or brown tourmaline while Caley and Richards (note 5), p. 51, n. 26, tentatively choose amber. For a completely different story about the origins of lyngurium, see Epiphanius, De XII gemmis (summarized in Kitson, 'Lapidary Traditions... Part II' (note 21), p. 86). William Gilbert, in his De magnete (1600), demonstrated that most gemstones can take a charge, although it seems to have been known much earlier. See Albertus Magnus (note 28), p. 102, n. 3.
    • Lapidary Traditions... Part II , pp. 86
    • Epiphanius1
  • 56
    • 26644440342 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Did Imaginary Animals Exist?
    • Garland Medieval Casebooks 22, ed. by Debra Hassig New York
    • For a parallel plea for non-'rationalist' analyses, see Pamela Gravestock, 'Did Imaginary Animals Exist?' in The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature, Garland Medieval Casebooks 22, ed. by Debra Hassig (New York, 1999), pp. 119-39, esp. pp. 121-23.
    • (1999) The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature , pp. 119-139
    • Gravestock, P.1
  • 57
    • 3543032264 scopus 로고
    • Paris
    • Robert Halleux and Jacques Champ, Les Lapidaires Grecs (Paris, 1985), p. 151, on topaz: 'Cette caractérisation des pierres mâles et femelles s'étend à touts les pierres en général, car il faut attribuer aux mâles les traits masculins et aux femelles les traits féminins'.
    • (1985) Les Lapidaires Grecs , pp. 151
    • Halleux, R.1    Champ, J.2
  • 58
    • 26644451114 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Terpening (note 12), p. 86, n. 2. Forbes (note 37), p. 75, also quotes Seneca as relating that the Egyptians saw all four elements as having male and female forms, and the Babylonians as referring to geodes and similar nodular stones as 'pregnant stones' (p. 91).
  • 59
    • 26644451112 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 13, n. 529
    • See Sharples, Sources on Physics (note 13), p. 182, n. 529 for a copious listing.
    • Sources on Physics , pp. 182
    • Sharples1
  • 60
    • 26644458975 scopus 로고
    • Fécondité des Mines et Sexualité des Pierres dans l'Antiquité Gréco-Romaine
    • 48.1
    • For a more general discussion of this naming convention, see Robert Halleux, 'Fécondité des Mines et Sexualité des Pierres dans l'Antiquité Gréco-Romaine', Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Historie, 48.1 (1970), 16-25;
    • (1970) Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Historie , pp. 16-25
    • Halleux, R.1
  • 62
    • 26644438514 scopus 로고
    • Male and Female in Peripatetic Botany
    • Plants, too, were gendered based on stereotypical human qualities: C. G. Tortzen, 'Male and Female in Peripatetic Botany', Classica et Medievalia, 42 (1991), 81-110.
    • (1991) Classica et Medievalia , vol.42 , pp. 81-110
    • Tortzen, C.G.1
  • 65
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    • by D. E. Eichholz Cambridge, MA
    • For example in Pliny, Natural History, by D. E. Eichholz (Cambridge, MA, 1963), the cyanus and lapis lazuli (XXXVII. 38-9 (pp. 262-64)) and carbuncle (XXXVII. 25 (p. 239)).
    • (1963) Natural History
    • Pliny1
  • 66
    • 0040885962 scopus 로고
    • Mappae Clavicula: A Little Key to the World of Medieval Techniques
    • Cyril Stanley Smith and John G. Hawthorne, 'Mappae Clavicula: A Little Key to the World of Medieval Techniques', Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 64 (1974), 45-46. The implication is that male lead is neither soft nor malleable, in keeping with the contemporary patriarchal worldview.
    • (1974) Transactions of the American Philosophical Society , vol.64 , pp. 45-46
    • Smith, C.S.1    Hawthorne, J.G.2
  • 67
    • 26644472859 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Trevisa (note 27), pp. 845-46. 'Pers' = Persia; 'Isider' = Isidore of Seville; 'somdel blasynge' = somewhat blazing; 'neisshe' = soft. Note again the correspondence to the ideas about human male and female qualities.
  • 68
    • 26644470731 scopus 로고
    • trans. by Mark Chance Brady and Jean A. Brady New York
    • Georgius Agricola, De Natura Fossilorum, trans. by Mark Chance Brady and Jean A. Brady (New York, 1955), v, 103: 'Aetites vary more in size than in shape. It may be the size of Armenian, Persian, Phoenician, or Nile apples.... The Arabian, whitish Apulian and the Misenian mineral which they call the "male" is hard, the Cyprian and African material they call "female" is soft'.
    • (1955) De Natura Fossilorum , vol.5 , pp. 103
    • Agricola, G.1
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    • Aetites or the Eagle-stone
    • See also C. N. Bromehead, 'Aetites or the Eagle-stone', Antiquity, 21 (1947), 16-22.
    • (1947) Antiquity , vol.21 , pp. 16-22
    • Bromehead, C.N.1
  • 73
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    • note
    • Pliny (note 46), XXXVII. 13 (pp. 203-05). In general, the medicinal properties of exotic substances derived its validity and (presumed) efficacy largely from their exoticness; see Gravestock (note 40), pp. 129-30.
  • 74
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    • Die grieschischen Quellen des Steinbuches von al-Beruni
    • 15.2
    • The encyclopedic author al-Biruni used elements of Theophrastus and other Greek authors to compile his book on stones, but neither he nor other Arabic authors translate De lapidibus in its entirety. He also does not repeat the story of lyngurium in his lapidary. See Mohamed Yahia Haschimi, 'Die grieschischen Quellen des Steinbuches von al-Beruni', Les Annales Archéologiques de Syrie, 15.2 (1965), 21-56 (pp. 33, 50), who notes the similarities of Biruni's comments on stones with attractive forces to those of Theophrastean lyngurium as well as to magnets, but implies that Biruni never mentions the lynx or his stone directly.
    • (1965) Les Annales Archéologiques de Syrie , pp. 21-56
    • Haschimi, M.Y.1
  • 75
    • 26644467834 scopus 로고
    • ed. by J. P. Migne Paris, cols 883-900
    • Michael Psellus, Lapidum Virtutibus, in Patrologiae cursus completus ... series Graeca, vol. 122, ed. by J. P. Migne (Paris, 1864), cols 883-900 at 887: 'Lapidum autem qui nobis cogniti sunt, et quas maxime in illis amamus virtutes aperiam tibi, ut in tempore ipsis utaris, et aliquid utilitatis ex eis accipias, utque lapides nobis incognitos descras,...lincurium...,et quotquot hujusmodi sunt, quorum nomina sola tenemus, in eos vero nunquam incidimus'.
    • (1864) Lapidum Virtutibus, in Patrologiae Cursus Completus ... Series Graeca , vol.122 , pp. 887
    • Psellus, M.1
  • 76
    • 26644464531 scopus 로고
    • trans. by Frank Justus Miller Cambridge, MA
    • Ovid, Metamorphoses, trans. by Frank Justus Miller (Cambridge, MA, 1984), XV. 413-15.
    • (1984) Metamorphoses , vol.15 , pp. 413-415
    • Ovid1
  • 77
    • 26644471419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Georgics
    • III. 264 trans. by H. Rushton Fairclough Cambridge, MA
    • Virgil, Georgics, III. 264 (Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid I-IV, trans. by H. Rushton Fairclough (Cambridge, MA, 1999), p. 195).
    • (1999) Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid I-IV , pp. 195
    • Virgil1
  • 78
    • 0347288741 scopus 로고
    • trans. by A. F. Scholfield Cambridge, MA, IV. 17.
    • Aelian, On the Characteristics of Animals, trans. by A. F. Scholfield (Cambridge, MA, 1958), IV. 17. Interestingly, in his section on the lynx proper (XIV, 6), he does not mention the stone at all.
    • (1958) On the Characteristics of Animals
    • Aelian1
  • 79
    • 0001732468 scopus 로고
    • Natural Science and Naturalistic Art in the Middle Ages
    • 52.3
    • Lynn White, Jr, 'Natural Science and Naturalistic Art in the Middle Ages', American Historical Review, 52.3 (1947), 421-35.
    • (1947) American Historical Review , pp. 421-435
    • White Jr., L.1
  • 80
    • 0040568605 scopus 로고
    • Report on a Wild Goose Chase
    • 7.1
    • White notes that many 'real' objects existed more as Platonic ideas when medieval artists and writers came to describe them until the later twelfth or early thirteenth century, when a burst of naturalism - coeval with the rise of Gothic style - flourished, but only for a century and a half. By the later fourteenth century, mannerism had overtaken 'real' depictions, although this, too, was pushed out by later fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Northern European realism - which in turn heralded the rise of scientific modes of inquiry (the causal connection is still debated). For a parallel story of the 'barnacle goose', see Florike Egmond and Peter Mason, 'Report on a Wild Goose Chase', Journal of the History of Collections, 7.1 (1995), 25-43.
    • (1995) Journal of the History of Collections , pp. 25-43
    • Egmond, F.1    Mason, P.2
  • 81
    • 5444273912 scopus 로고
    • ed. by W. M. Lindsay Oxford
    • Isidore of Seville, Etymologiarum sive originum, Libri XX, ed. by W. M. Lindsay (Oxford, 1911), XII.2.20 for the animal and XVI.8.8 for the stone.
    • (1911) Etymologiarum Sive Originum, Libri XX
    • Isidore1
  • 82
    • 26644431747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 16
    • Kitson, 'Lapidary Traditions... Part I' (note 16), p. 53: 'lyncurius: gim the bi\ on loches micgan', 'gem that is of lynx urine'.
    • Lapidary Traditions... Part I , pp. 53
    • Kitson1
  • 83
    • 26644434060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trevisa (note 27), pp. 855-56. 'hatte' = is named
    • Trevisa (note 27), pp. 855-56. 'hatte' = is named.
  • 84
    • 26644472843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ibid., p. 845. More confusing, however, is that electrum in his work seems to denote three distinct substances, one mineral and two metals.
  • 85
    • 26644463585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Albertus Magnus (note 28), II. ii.10 (p. 102) unhesitatingly states that 'Ligurius is a stone formed from the urine of the lynx'.
  • 86
    • 53149113163 scopus 로고
    • Paris
    • The 'Second Prose Lapidary' in this tradition rather suddenly adds in that 'Theophrastus devises 3 manners of colours of this stone: gold and myrrh and incense' (Paul Struder and Joan Evans, Anglo-Normal Lapidaries (Paris, 1924), p. 136: 'Theophrastus devise treis maneres de culurs sur ceste père, si cume d'or et de mirre et de encense').
    • (1924) Anglo-Normal Lapidaries , pp. 136
    • Struder, P.1    Evans, J.2
  • 87
    • 26644471650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Keiser (note 25), pp. 50-51. The manuscript reads 'Six' rather than 'Lynx', but the suggested mistranscription has been reinserted, 'flood ful of ouens' is a reference to lyngurium being found in riverbeds, but the source of this piece of information is unknown.
  • 88
    • 26644468751 scopus 로고
    • Vienna, repr. Geneva
    • Ibid., p. 17, 11. 20-29. 'hatte' = is named. The varied colours, that is, more than just yellow, surface in a number of medieval sources. For example, in one fourteenth-century lapidary, lyngurium can have the colour of saffron, black-speckled amber, red carbuncle, or a green hue that changes with the quality of the light; see Issac del Sotto, La Lapidaire du Quatorzième Siècle (Vienna, 1862; repr. Geneva, 1974), p. 67.
    • (1862) La Lapidaire du Quatorzième Siècle , pp. 67
    • Sotto, I.D.1
  • 89
    • 26644473346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Theophrastus had mentioned that the lynx is grudging, not in De lapidibus, but in his lost work On creatures said to be grudging'. See Photius (note 2).
  • 90
    • 26644452001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Studer and Evans (note 62), p. 247, 11. 1131-40 and 1141-48. These two chapters follow one on lynchnites which is occasionally confused with lyngurium, but here it contains information distinct from that of the lynx-stone. I must gratefully acknowledge the assistance of William Edwards, University of Toronto, for his help with Old French.
  • 91
    • 26644443323 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Pannier (note 18), p. 250, 11. 417-18: 'L'auctoritez moult m'asseüre/A dire du verai ligure'.
  • 92
    • 26644456601 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ibid., p. 251, 11. 443-46: 'Theophatus, nous fait acroire/Par mie pierre com par mi voirre/Voit lyns, et parmi neuf parois,/Et dist ja mar en douterois'. I must thank Marc Trottier for assistance on this translation and reference to Latini (below). Prose lapidaries tend to follow this bit of 'solid' information; cf. Struder and Evans (note 62), p. 103 (First Prose Lapidary) and p. 135 (Second Prose Lapidary).
  • 93
  • 94
    • 0345206727 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Albertus Magnus, in his De animalibus, treats the lynx only briefly, but relates that it is primarily 'noted for the acuity of its vision';
    • De Animalibus
    • Magnus, A.1
  • 95
    • 84887964554 scopus 로고
    • Man and the Beasts - De animalibus (Books 22-26)
    • trans. by James J. Scanlan Binghamton, NY
    • see Albertus Magnus, Man and the Beasts - De animalibus (Books 22-26), Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 47, trans. by James J. Scanlan (Binghamton, NY, 1987), p. 156.
    • (1987) Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 47 , pp. 156
    • Magnus, A.1
  • 96
    • 0040454372 scopus 로고
    • trans. by Paul Barrette New York
    • There is another linguistic confusion along the lines of that with Liguria in northern Italy, in that the mythological 'Lynceus' (the first man to mine copper) was supposed to be able to see what happened underground by the keenness of his eyesight. Dante's teacher, Brunetto Latini, however, knew of the keen eyesight legend (as well as of the stone) and noted rather humorously that although the lynx could see through walls and mountains, 'while it is eating its food, if by chance looks somewhere else, it forgets right away what it is eating ... and loses it all'. Brunetto Latini, The Book of Treasure (Li Livres dou Tresor), trans. by Paul Barrette (New York, 1993), p. 139.
    • (1993) The Book of Treasure (Li Livres Dou Tresor) , pp. 139
    • Latini, B.1
  • 97
    • 26644454734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pannier (note 18), 250-52, 11. 417-74 (nature) and pp. 268-70, 11. 997-1142 (senefiance)
    • Pannier (note 18), 250-52, 11. 417-74 (nature) and pp. 268-70, 11. 997-1142 (senefiance).
  • 98
    • 26644455439 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Keiser (note 25), p. 24: 'Moyses seith vs that ther ben som [lyngurium] of the colour of Iagounces'
    • Keiser (note 25), p. 24: 'Moyses seith vs that ther ben som [lyngurium] of the colour of Iagounces'.
  • 99
    • 26644434766 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., pp. 24-25
    • Ibid., pp. 24-25.
  • 100
    • 26644448142 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Zettersten (note 23), pp. 35-36, 11. 357-65. 'Flix' may be a transformation of Vincent of Beauvais' (note 29) fluxum ventris, 'stomach-flow', and the passage seems as if it ought to read, '... staunchith the flix, that causith disease...'.
  • 101
    • 27144557837 scopus 로고
    • Oxford
    • Joan Evans and Mary S. Serjeantson, English Medieval Lapidaries (Oxford, 1933), p. 98: 'as a maister deuysed that ther ij maners of topacie' ('deuysed' = devised, figured out). Continental lapidaries, too, followed this pattern; thus the early fourteenth-century Bern lapidary says 'Li maistre l'apellant ligure' (Pannier (note 18), p. 135, 1. 883).
    • (1933) English Medieval Lapidaries , pp. 98
    • Evans, J.1    Serjeantson, M.S.2
  • 102
    • 0346672248 scopus 로고
    • Which were the Original Twelve Gemstones of the First Biblical Breastplate?
    • 22.9
    • On this tradition, see E. L. Gilmore, 'Which were the Original Twelve Gemstones of the First Biblical Breastplate?', Lapidary Journal, 22.9 (1968), 1130-34, and table, p. 1134.
    • (1968) Lapidary Journal , pp. 1130-1134
    • Gilmore, E.L.1
  • 103
    • 19344376023 scopus 로고
    • Kunz (note 44), p. 1134 London
    • See Kunz (note 44), p. 1134 and C. W. King, The Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems (London, 1865), p. 217. King notes that the Greek hyacinth was also gendered, the male being 'a dark orange, extremely agreeable in tint', and the female 'a pale yellow of extraordinary lustre'.
    • (1865) The Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems , pp. 217
    • King, C.W.1
  • 104
    • 26644475363 scopus 로고
    • ed. and trans. by Peter Riethe Salzburg
    • Hildegard von Bingen, Das Buch von dem Steinen, ed. and trans. by Peter Riethe (Salzburg, 1979), p. 18, includes a table of the twelve stones' names in various sources.
    • (1979) Das Buch von dem Steinen , pp. 18
    • Von Bingen, H.1
  • 106
    • 4644248570 scopus 로고
    • Tiguri
    • bound with Conrad Gesner, De Omni Rerum Fossilium Genere ... (Tiguri, 1565). This copy in the Dibner Library of Science and Technology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, is interesting because a previous owner (possibly Thomas Leigh, whose name is inscribed on the endpaper) has annotated the three occurrences of lyngurium in the volume, cross-referencing each to the other two. Nothing further, however, is known of Thomas Leigh. I am deeply indebted to the Dibner Library for allowing me to investigate their many rare books on natural history.
    • (1565) De Omni Rerum Fossilium Genere ...
    • Gesner, C.1
  • 107
    • 26644449114 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Studer and Evans (note 62)
    • Halleux and Champ (note 41), cap. xxxi (p. 271): 'La pierre lyngurium est une excelente protection dans la maison, mais aussi pour les femmes enceintes et les enfants, pour qu'ils n'aient pas peur. Elle résiste aussi au mal royal si on la porte ou si on boit sa poudre dans du vin'; see also cap. xliii (p. 281). Interestingly, the Evax lapidary does seem to have been consulted by at least some European compilers, such as the Phillippe de Thaon in his Alphabetical Lapidary (Studer and Evans (note 62), p. 203).
    • Alphabetical Lapidary , pp. 203
    • De Thaon, P.1
  • 108
    • 26644441081 scopus 로고
    • Timotheus of Gaza on Animals (ΠEPI ZΩΩN)
    • Paris
    • F. S. Bodenheimer and A. Rabinowitz, Timotheus of Gaza on Animals (ΠEPI ZΩΩN), Collection de Travaux de l'Academie Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences 3 (Paris, 1949), p. 44. The editors credit the story to Aelian, who Timotheus seems to have known, despite the fact that Aelian does not mention a milkiness in this stone. They also note that Timotheus' word for the stone, 'lyncouria' varies in spelling across all the surviving manuscripts, giving lie to the fact that compilers had difficulty with this story.
    • (1949) Collection de Travaux de L'Academie Internationale D'Histoire des Sciences 3 , pp. 44
    • Bodenheimer, F.S.1    Rabinowitz, A.2
  • 110
    • 26644451092 scopus 로고
    • Heilbronn
    • In surveying the various pre-Arabic authors, he notes only that 'Theophrastus is bei Tifaschi nicht zu finden, aber bei Beilak' (p. 273). Even in Beilak the reference is to 'Afrustas' (p. 256), which may or may not be Theophrastus. Lyngurium did appear in Spain, but only as a derivative of the Marbode tradition: see Karl Vollmiller, Ein Spanisches Steinbuch (Heilbronn, 1880). 'Theoprasto' remains the authority in this version, but rather than his dictum that the stone resembles straw (rather than attracting straw), this fifteenth-century version suggests instead that it resembles 'fern' (helecho, 25).
    • (1880) Ein Spanisches Steinbuch
    • Vollmiller, K.1
  • 111
    • 26644475110 scopus 로고
    • The Lapidary of Alfonso X
    • n. 3
    • See J. Horace Nunnemaker, 'The Lapidary of Alfonso X', Philological Quarterly, 8 (1929), 248-54, esp. p. 249, n. 3;
    • (1929) Philological Quarterly , vol.8 , pp. 248-254
    • Nunnemaker, J.H.1
  • 112
    • 26644435198 scopus 로고
    • In Pursuit of the Sources of the Alfonsine Lapidaries
    • J. Horace Nunnemaker, Ibid., 'In Pursuit of the Sources of the Alfonsine Lapidaries', Speculum, 14 (1939), 483-89;
    • (1939) Speculum , vol.14 , pp. 483-489
    • Nunnemaker, J.H.1
  • 114
    • 79957422602 scopus 로고
    • The Life, Work, and Sayings of Theophrastus in the Arabic Tradition
    • Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities II, ed. by William W. Fortenbaugh New Brunswick, NJ
    • Dimitri Gutas, 'The Life, Work, and Sayings of Theophrastus in the Arabic Tradition', in Theophrastus of Eresus: On His life and Works, Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities II, ed. by William W. Fortenbaugh (New Brunswick, NJ, 1985), p. 82;
    • (1985) Theophrastus of Eresus: on His Life and Works , pp. 82
    • Gutas, D.1
  • 115
    • 26644464048 scopus 로고
    • Leiden, ch. 3, 'Die Gesteinskunde'
    • Manfred Ullman, Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaft im Islam (Leiden, 1972), ch. 3, 'Die Gesteinskunde', pp. 95-144, esp. pp. 111-12 on Theophrastus;
    • (1972) Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaft im Islam , pp. 95-144
    • Ullman, M.1
  • 116
    • 26644452228 scopus 로고
    • Die Mineralogie in der arabischen Literatur
    • Julius Ruska, 'Die Mineralogie in der arabischen Literatur', Isis, 1 (1913), 341-50.
    • (1913) Isis , vol.1 , pp. 341-350
    • Ruska, J.1
  • 118
    • 26644460789 scopus 로고
    • Castor et Lynx Medievaux: Leur Senefiance
    • This story is recorded in Pliny (note 46), VIII.47, and in the Physiologus (note 89), but the autocastration story existed in the Greek tradition where the beaver is known as καστορ (castor). In Latin, however, the beaver was known as fiber. The Latin castrare means to cut, weaken, or castrate (related to an Indo-European root related to a 'blade'; compare the Sanskrit chastra, 'knife' or 'sword'), while in Greek 'to castrate' is εκτεμνω. Therefore, the false etymology could not arise in Greek. It would appear that the Romans adopted the Greek name for the beaver over the original Latin and 'justified' it through the story of auto-castration. The Greek term obviously made the story even more memorable and today the beaver's Linnean name is Castor fiber. Many thanks to Daryn Lehoux, King's College, Halifax, Canada, for help on this philological conundrum. For a psychoanalytical analysis of two such stories, see I. Malaxecheverria, 'Castor et Lynx Medievaux: Leur Senefiance', Florilegium: Carleton University Annual Papers on Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages, 3 (1981), 228-38.
    • (1981) Florilegium: Carleton University Annual Papers on Classical Antiquity and the middle Ages , vol.3 , pp. 228-238
    • Malaxecheverria, I.1
  • 119
    • 26644433334 scopus 로고
    • London
    • On scatological animal lore in general, see Anne Clark, Beasts and Bawdy (London, 1975).
    • (1975) Beasts and Bawdy
    • Clark, A.1
  • 120
    • 26644451998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Evans and Serjeantson (note 74), p. 44. Here Theophrastus has mutated to 'Thefatus'.
  • 121
    • 26644453492 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Hildegard von Bingen (note 76), ch. 19: 'kopf...zerbrechen würde'.
  • 122
    • 0345937415 scopus 로고
    • Chapel Hill, NC
    • The best general work on bestiaries is Florence McCulloch, Medieval Latin and French Bestiaries (Chapel Hill, NC, 1962). More recently, however, see Deborah Hassig (note 50), esp. p. 240, n. 5, for a catalogue of manuscripts containing both bestiaries and lapidaries.
    • (1962) Medieval Latin and French Bestiaries
    • McCulloch, F.1
  • 124
    • 2242460329 scopus 로고
    • Austin, TX
    • A modern translation is Michael J. Curley, Physiologus (Austin, TX, 1979).
    • (1979) Physiologus
    • Curley, M.J.1
  • 125
    • 26644456302 scopus 로고
    • The Physiologus, the Bestiaries and Medieval Animal Lore
    • On the transition, see F. N. M. Diekstra, 'The Physiologus, the Bestiaries and Medieval Animal Lore', Neophilologus, 69 (1985), 142-155,
    • (1985) Neophilologus , vol.69 , pp. 142-155
    • Diekstra, F.N.M.1
  • 126
    • 26644443792 scopus 로고
    • Early English Text Society 299, Oxford
    • The Middle English Physiologus, Early English Text Society 299, ed. by Hanneke Luirtjes (Oxford, 1991), pp. lxviii-lxxix. The earliest example of a purely Physiologus-inspired bestiary (that is, one including the classical animals, in the standard order) that includes the lynx of which I am aware is the twelfth- or thirteenth-century MS Paris Bib. Nat. Lat. 3718, substantially later than the expanded bestiaries. I have not seen this source;
    • (1991) The middle English Physiologus
    • Luirtjes, H.1
  • 128
    • 84928307441 scopus 로고
    • A New Look at English Bestiaries
    • 54.1
    • W. B. Yapp, 'A New Look at English Bestiaries', Medium Ævum, 54.1 (1985), 1-19, tabulates the occurrences of various animals and makes no mention of lynxes at all.
    • (1985) Medium ÆVum , pp. 1-19
    • Yapp, W.B.1
  • 129
    • 26644442048 scopus 로고
    • De bestiis et aliis rebus
    • ed. by J. P. Migne Paris, col. 84
    • For example, Pseudo-Hugh of St. Victor, De bestiis et aliis rebus, in Patrologiae cursus completus ... series Latina, 177, ed. by J. P. Migne (Paris, 1862), col. 84,
    • (1862) Patrologiae Cursus Completus ... Series Latina , vol.177
    • Pseudo-Hugh1
  • 130
    • 26644455609 scopus 로고
    • De Bestiis et Aliis Rebus and the Latin Physiologus
    • 13.2
    • Francis J. Carmody, 'De Bestiis et Aliis Rebus and the Latin Physiologus', Speculum, 13.2 (1932), 155-59.
    • (1932) Speculum , pp. 155-159
    • Carmody, F.J.1
  • 132
    • 2942595075 scopus 로고
    • London
    • (Ann Payne, Medieval Beasts (London, 1990), p. 28) has a lion-like animal with a crown. On the other hand, some manuscripts seem to clearly depict the lynx/lyngurium story, but adjoined to text of other animals;
    • (1990) Medieval Beasts , pp. 28
    • Payne, A.1
  • 138
    • 0347828913 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example Cambridge University Library MS II. 4.26 (White, The Book of Beasts, p. 10).
    • The Book of Beasts , pp. 10
    • White1
  • 139
    • 0003944069 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 5.2 (539b22)
    • This idea first appears in Aristotle, Historia Animalium, 5.2 (539b22): 'Thus opistheuric animals copulate with a rearward presentment, as is the case with the lion, the hare, and the lynx'
    • Historia Animalium
    • Aristotle1
  • 140
    • 26644467634 scopus 로고
    • 2 vols Chicago, IL
    • (translated by D'arcy Wentworth Thomas in The Works of Aristotle, 2 vols (Chicago, IL, 1952), II, 66).
    • (1952) The Works of Aristotle , vol.2 , pp. 66
    • Thomas, D.W.1
  • 142
    • 84966619216 scopus 로고
    • Gemmologie et Imaginaire: Les Pierres Precieuses de Remy Belleau
    • ed. by Claude-Gilbert Dubois Bordeaux
    • e Siecle, ed. by Claude-Gilbert Dubois (Bordeaux, 1987), p. 86: 'Certains poèmes, entièrement descriptifs, ne laissent d'ailleurs presque nulle place à la Fable, et relèguent la Mythologe au rang de "science annexe" de la Gemmologie'. Faissant ascribes the invention of the new methodology of writing about gems to Belleau.
    • (1987) e Siecle , pp. 86
    • Faisant, C.1
  • 145
    • 84965874343 scopus 로고
    • Sources and Background to Discoveries of New Animals in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
    • 18.2
    • For a general overview of the Renaissance bestiary-zoology transition, see Wilma George, 'Sources and Background to Discoveries of New Animals in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', History of Science, 18.2 (1980), 79-104.
    • (1980) History of Science , pp. 79-104
    • George, W.1
  • 146
    • 26644443087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Topsell (note 97), p. 494
    • Topsell (note 97), p. 494.
  • 147
    • 26644457107 scopus 로고
    • London, cap. 86
    • Noel Hudson, An Early English Version of Hortus Sanitatis (London, 1954), cap. 86 (p. 54). Andrewe also claimed that the lynx (or 'lincworme', as he called it) had a 'tonge like a serpent but it is moche greater in suche quantite that he casteth it about his necke'.
    • (1954) An Early English Version of Hortus Sanitatis , pp. 54
    • Hudson, N.1
  • 149
    • 26644455608 scopus 로고
    • Venice
    • r which include information on the stone's origin, its colours, its medicinal properties, and its ability to produce curative mushrooms. This seems to be the origin of Robert Boyle's belief (see note 110). See also Adams (note 20), pp. 104-05.
    • (1516) Speculum Lapidum Clarissimi Artium
    • Leonardi, C.1
  • 153
    • 26644449746 scopus 로고
    • London
    • Agricola (note 49), p. 71. Stones made from fossilized tears are not an uncommon theme in lapidary studies; see Burnham (note 88), pp. 7-8. Meleagar was a Greek poet who wrote a ten-line address to Eros which featured the lynx; see Norman Douglas, Birds and Beasts of the Greek Anthology (London, 1929), p. 11.
    • (1929) Birds and Beasts of the Greek Anthology , pp. 11
    • Douglas, N.1
  • 156
    • 26644435911 scopus 로고
    • Los Angeles, CA, n. 10, and n. 23
    • These two references come from Sydney H. Ball, A Roman Book of Precious Stones (Los Angeles, CA, 1950), p. 234, n. 10, and p. 239, n. 23, respectively.
    • (1950) A Roman Book of Precious Stones , pp. 234
    • Ball, S.H.1
  • 157
    • 26644459394 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Paris
    • Agricola was not alone in his belief: Andreas de Laguna, in his 1562 commentary on Diascorides, stated flatly, 'Certains croient que c'est de l'urine de lynx, non sans être dans une erreur totale' (X. R. M. Fero, Symboles Animaux (Paris, 1996), p. 279).
    • (1996) Symboles Animaux , pp. 279
    • Fero, X.R.M.1
  • 158
    • 26644438497 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • de Laet (note 49), pp. 154-55: 'Ego Lyncurium a Succino differe non video: & quoque pro gemma habitum olim, præfertim quod aureo colore pellucet ac splendet, minime dubito'.
  • 159
    • 26644473566 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is also the term given to micro-organisms trapped in amber.
  • 160
    • 26644456589 scopus 로고
    • Lugduni Batavorum, II. 258
    • Anselm Boètius de Boot, Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia, 3rd edn (Lugduni Batavorum, 1647), II. 258 (pp. 476-78). This seems to be the accepted thesis through the eighteenth century;
    • (1647) Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia, 3rd Edn , pp. 476-478
    • De Boot, A.B.1
  • 161
    • 26644458745 scopus 로고
    • Frankfurt, § 147
    • see, for example, Joannis Wilhelm Baumer, Historia Naturalis Lapidum Pretiosorum Ominum (Frankfurt, 1771), § 147 (pp. 131-32). John Hill (note 36), pp. 73-77, however, argued against this view. De Boot's belemnites seem no different than de Laet's succino.
    • (1771) Historia Naturalis Lapidum Pretiosorum Ominum , pp. 131-132
    • Baumer, J.W.1
  • 162
    • 18144393207 scopus 로고
    • London
    • v]), Boyle presents a rather unscientific view in this essay, complete with theories of 'lapidifying juice' (10 fols) which would have been right at home in a Scholastic tradition, but may well derive from the then-current alchemical/Paracelsian tradition.
    • (1672) An Essay about the Origine & Virtues of Gems , pp. 179
    • Boyle, R.1
  • 163
    • 26644448634 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Topsell (note 97), p. 494. He also claims, 'I could never be brought to beleeve [that the stone engendered mushrooms], untill I did eate thereof in myne owne house'. This earth was apparently very good for growing fungi, hence Robert Boyle's association of it with mushrooms.
  • 164
    • 26644468981 scopus 로고
    • London, repr. Menston, Yorks.
    • Thomas Browne, Pseudoxia Epidemica (London, 1646; repr. Menston, Yorks., 1972). He does, however, discuss and dismiss the self-castrating beaver (III. 4) and the idea that lions, hares, and lynxes both urinate and copulate backwards (V. 19).
    • (1646) Pseudoxia Epidemica
    • Browne, T.1
  • 166
    • 26644454514 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the Wilderness of Forms: Ideas and Things in Thomas Browne's Cabinets of Curiosity
    • ed. by Neil Rhodes and Jonathan Sewday London
    • The parenthetical quotation is from Claire Preston, 'In the Wilderness of Forms: Ideas and Things in Thomas Browne's Cabinets of Curiosity', in The Renaissance Computer: Knowledge Technology in the First Age of Print, ed. by Neil Rhodes and Jonathan Sewday (London, 2000), pp. 170-83 (p. 177).
    • (2000) The Renaissance Computer: Knowledge Technology in the First Age of Print , pp. 170-183
    • Preston, C.1
  • 167
    • 26644454966 scopus 로고
    • Lipsiæ
    • Adam Rechenberg, De Gemmis Errores Vulgares (Lipsiæ, 1687). He quotes Vincent of Beauvais, Marbode, Pliny, Albertus Magnus, and the Damigeron-Evax tradition, but deals with the common errors about twenty-two 'real' stones, not mythical ones.
    • (1687) De Gemmis Errores Vulgares
    • Rechenberg, A.1
  • 170
    • 1342341892 scopus 로고
    • London, repr. New York
    • John Woodward, An Essay towards a Natural History of the Earth (London, 1695; repr. New York, 1974) considers him one of the reliable classical sources, along with Eratosthenes, Herodotus, Xanthus Lydus, Strabo, Strato, Pausania, Pomponius Mela, and Plutarch (p. 65).
    • (1695) An Essay Towards a Natural History of the Earth
    • Woodward, J.1


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