Coffee, microscopy, and the Lancet's Analytical Sanitary Commission

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 14, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 171-197

  Smith, S D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Adulteration; Coffee consumption; Diet; Food analysis; Great Britain; Microscopy; Technology

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; COFFEE; FOOD CONTAMINATION; HISTORY; MICROSCOPY; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; PUBLICATION; UNITED KINGDOM;

COFFEE; FOOD CONTAMINATION; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; MICROSCOPY; PERIODICALS; PUBLIC HEALTH ADMINISTRATION;

EID: 0035433808     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/14.2.171     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. S. S. Sprigge, The Life and Times of Thomas Wakley (1897; reissued 1899; reprinted New York, 1974), p. 460.
2. The 'Bradford incident' of 1858 (the accidental sale by a shopkeeper of arsenic instead of plaster of Paris to a baker who intended to use it to adulterate lozenges) was instrumental in transforming the Select Committee's recommendations into law.
3. The context of legal reform is set out in I. Paulus, The Search for Pure Food: A Sociology of Legislation in Britain (London, 1974), pp. 15-27 and in J. Phillips and M. French, 'Adulteration and Food Law, 1899-1939', Twentieth-Century British History, 9 (1998), pp. 350-9.
4. The context of legal reform is set out in I. Paulus, The Search for Pure Food: A Sociology of Legislation in Britain (London, 1974), pp. 15-27 and in J. Phillips and M. French, 'Adulteration and Food Law, 1899-1939', Twentieth-Century British History, 9 (1998), pp. 350-9.
5. F. Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons (London, 1820); [J. D. Williams], Slow Poisoning: or, Disease and Death in the Pot and Bottle (London, 1830); J. Mitchell, Treatise on the Falsification of Food (London, 1848); A. R. Normandy, The Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis (London, 1850); J. B. Chevallier, Dictionnaire des Altérations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Médicamentenses et Commerciales (Paris, 1850). Accum also participated in the debate over the quality of spa waters; see C. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity: Water Analysis in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Bristol, 1990), pp. 52-4, 65.
6. F. Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons (London, 1820); [J. D. Williams], Slow Poisoning: or, Disease and Death in the Pot and Bottle (London, 1830); J. Mitchell, Treatise on the Falsification of Food (London, 1848); A. R. Normandy, The Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis (London, 1850); J. B. Chevallier, Dictionnaire des Altérations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Médicamentenses et Commerciales (Paris, 1850). Accum also participated in the debate over the quality of spa waters; see C. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity: Water Analysis in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Bristol, 1990), pp. 52-4, 65.
7. F. Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons (London, 1820); [J. D. Williams], Slow Poisoning: or, Disease and Death in the Pot and Bottle (London, 1830); J. Mitchell, Treatise on the Falsification of Food (London, 1848); A. R. Normandy, The Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis (London, 1850); J. B. Chevallier, Dictionnaire des Altérations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Médicamentenses et Commerciales (Paris, 1850). Accum also participated in the debate over the quality of spa waters; see C. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity: Water Analysis in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Bristol, 1990), pp. 52-4, 65.
8. F. Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons (London, 1820); [J. D. Williams], Slow Poisoning: or, Disease and Death in the Pot and Bottle (London, 1830); J. Mitchell, Treatise on the Falsification of Food (London, 1848); A. R. Normandy, The Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis (London, 1850); J. B. Chevallier, Dictionnaire des Altérations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Médicamentenses et Commerciales (Paris, 1850). Accum also participated in the debate over the quality of spa waters; see C. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity: Water Analysis in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Bristol, 1990), pp. 52-4, 65.
9. F. Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons (London, 1820); [J. D. Williams], Slow Poisoning: or, Disease and Death in the Pot and Bottle (London, 1830); J. Mitchell, Treatise on the Falsification of Food (London, 1848); A. R. Normandy, The Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis (London, 1850); J. B. Chevallier, Dictionnaire des Altérations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Médicamentenses et Commerciales (Paris, 1850). Accum also participated in the debate over the quality of spa waters; see C. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity: Water Analysis in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Bristol, 1990), pp. 52-4, 65.
10. F. Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons (London, 1820); [J. D. Williams], Slow Poisoning: or, Disease and Death in the Pot and Bottle (London, 1830); J. Mitchell, Treatise on the Falsification of Food (London, 1848); A. R. Normandy, The Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis (London, 1850); J. B. Chevallier, Dictionnaire des Altérations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Médicamentenses et Commerciales (Paris, 1850). Accum also participated in the debate over the quality of spa waters; see C. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity: Water Analysis in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Bristol, 1990), pp. 52-4, 65.
11. Cited in E. G. Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall: Physician and Sanitary Reformer (London, 1908), p. 100.
12. Report for the Select Committee Appointed to inquire into the Adulteration of Food, Drinks, and Drugs (P.P., 1855, VIII), p. 27.
13. J. Burnett, Plenty and Want: A Social History of Diet in England from 1815 to the Present Day (London, 1966), p. 198; idem., Liquid Pleasures: A Social History of Drinks in Modern Britain (London, 1999), p. 38. An earlier example which also casts the medical researcher in an heroic mould is F. A. Filby, A History of Food Adulteration and Analysis (London, 1934), pp. 7-8, 194f.
14. J. Burnett, Plenty and Want: A Social History of Diet in England from 1815 to the Present Day (London, 1966), p. 198; idem., Liquid Pleasures: A Social History of Drinks in Modern Britain (London, 1999), p. 38. An earlier example which also casts the medical researcher in an heroic mould is F. A. Filby, A History of Food Adulteration and Analysis (London, 1934), pp. 7-8, 194f.
15. J. Burnett, Plenty and Want: A Social History of Diet in England from 1815 to the Present Day (London, 1966), p. 198; idem., Liquid Pleasures: A Social History of Drinks in Modern Britain (London, 1999), p. 38. An earlier example which also casts the medical researcher in an heroic mould is F. A. Filby, A History of Food Adulteration and Analysis (London, 1934), pp. 7-8, 194f.
16. Burnett, Plenty and Want, p. 198; F. B. Smith, The People's Health, 1830-1910 (London, 1979), p. 208; Paulus, Search for Pure Food, p. 23.
17. Burnett, Plenty and Want, p. 198; F. B. Smith, The People's Health, 1830-1910 (London, 1979), p. 208; Paulus, Search for Pure Food, p. 23.
18. Burnett, Plenty and Want, p. 198; F. B. Smith, The People's Health, 1830-1910 (London, 1979), p. 208; Paulus, Search for Pure Food, p. 23.
19. The Times, 24 July 1855.
20. The invention of the compound microscope is traditionally attributed to Zachatias Jansen, a spectacle-maker of Middleburg. Galileo is known to have used one in 1610, and in 1665 Robert Hooke publicized the use of the instrument in his Micrographia; see M. A. Dennis, 'Graphic Understanding: Instruments and Interpretation in Robert Hooke's Micrographia', Science in Context, 3 (1989), 309-62.
21. J. Hogg, The Microscope: Its History, Construction, and Application (London, 1854; 8th edn, 1871), p. 13; G. W. White, Introduction to Microscopy (London, 1966), pp. 44-5; B. Bracegirdle, 'The Microscopical Tradition', in W. F. Bynum and R. Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine (2 vols; New York, 1993), I, pp. 104-11. Bracegirdle draws attention to the publication in 1848 of J. T. Quekett's Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope, which was the first textbook to deal exclusively with the preparation and analysis of microscope slides. Quekett was among witnesses giving evidence to the Select Committee of Inquiry into Adulteration, but he volunteered little direct information on the use of the microscope.
22. J. Hogg, The Microscope: Its History, Construction, and Application (London, 1854; 8th edn, 1871), p. 13; G. W. White, Introduction to Microscopy (London, 1966), pp. 44-5; B. Bracegirdle, 'The Microscopical Tradition', in W. F. Bynum and R. Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine (2 vols; New York, 1993), I, pp. 104-11. Bracegirdle draws attention to the publication in 1848 of J. T. Quekett's Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope, which was the first textbook to deal exclusively with the preparation and analysis of microscope slides. Quekett was among witnesses giving evidence to the Select Committee of Inquiry into Adulteration, but he volunteered little direct information on the use of the microscope.
23. J. Hogg, The Microscope: Its History, Construction, and Application (London, 1854; 8th edn, 1871), p. 13; G. W. White, Introduction to Microscopy (London, 1966), pp. 44-5; B. Bracegirdle, 'The Microscopical Tradition', in W. F. Bynum and R. Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine (2 vols; New York, 1993), I, pp. 104-11. Bracegirdle draws attention to the publication in 1848 of J. T. Quekett's Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope, which was the first textbook to deal exclusively with the preparation and analysis of microscope slides. Quekett was among witnesses giving evidence to the Select Committee of Inquiry into Adulteration, but he volunteered little direct information on the use of the microscope.
24. J. Hogg, The Microscope: Its History, Construction, and Application (London, 1854; 8th edn, 1871), p. 13; G. W. White, Introduction to Microscopy (London, 1966), pp. 44-5; B. Bracegirdle, 'The Microscopical Tradition', in W. F. Bynum and R. Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine (2 vols; New York, 1993), I, pp. 104-11. Bracegirdle draws attention to the publication in 1848 of J. T. Quekett's Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope, which was the first textbook to deal exclusively with the preparation and analysis of microscope slides. Quekett was among witnesses giving evidence to the Select Committee of Inquiry into Adulteration, but he volunteered little direct information on the use of the microscope.
25. Cited in E. A. Gray, By Candlelight: The Life of Dr. Arthur Hill Hassall, 1817-94 (London, 1983), p. 84.
26. The case for a social constructionist approach to the analysis of the creation of medical knowledge is set out by L. Jordanova, 'The Social Construction of Medical Knowledge', Social History of Medicine, 8 (1995), 361-81, and D. Harley, 'Rhetoric and the Social Construction of Sickness and Healing', Social History of Medicine, 12 (1999), 407-35.
27. The case for a social constructionist approach to the analysis of the creation of medical knowledge is set out by L. Jordanova, 'The Social Construction of Medical Knowledge', Social History of Medicine, 8 (1995), 361-81, and D. Harley, 'Rhetoric and the Social Construction of Sickness and Healing', Social History of Medicine, 12 (1999), 407-35.
28. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity, Chapters 2 and 4 especially.
29. Ibid., pp. 104, 116-17.
30. [J.C. Durnford, J. A. Power, and R. S. Daniell], The Correspondence Relating to the Lancet Sanitory Commission (London, 1856), pp. 3-4. Other non-staple foodstuffs tested by the ASC included pickles and potted meat.
31. Chicory cultivation was concentrated in villages surrounding York. Early investment was undertaken by the Leeds dyer and dry-salter George Nusey because chicory leaves can be employed as an agent of fermentation in the production of blue dye used in the textile industry; see A. Harris, 'Chicory and Woad: a Comment', Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 21 (1986), 19-21.
32. Lancet, 1851, II, p. 276. Hassall reported adulteration in chicory itself, but the issue had less impact on the adulteration debate in mid-nineteenth-century Britain than it did in the United States during the 1880s where evidence of food colouring containing arsenic and lead to disguise chicory was uncovered; see M. Pendergrast, Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How it Transformed Our World (New York, 1999), pp. 59-60.
33. Lancet, 1851, II, p. 276. Hassall reported adulteration in chicory itself, but the issue had less impact on the adulteration debate in mid-nineteenth-century Britain than it did in the United States during the 1880s where evidence of food colouring containing arsenic and lead to disguise chicory was uncovered; see M. Pendergrast, Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How it Transformed Our World (New York, 1999), pp. 59-60.
34. B. R. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 709-10.
35. S. D. Smith, 'Accounting for Taste: British Coffee Consumption in Historical Perspective', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XXVII (1996), pp. 207-8.
36. A. D. Gayer, W. W. Rostow, and A. J. Schwartz, The Growth and Fluctuation of the British Economy, 1790-1850 (Oxford, 1953), microfilm supplement, pp. 777f. The price of Jamaica ordinary coffee climbed from 177s per cwt in 1800-4 to 270s in 1805-9, but then collapsed to 140s in 1810-14 and 165s in 1815-19.
37. T. Tooke, A History of Prices and the State of the Circulation (2 vols; London, 1838), II, p. 399.
38. House of Commons, Sessional Papers (1822, XXI), pp. 1,690f; The Times, May-June 1818.
39. House of Commons, Sessional Papers (1822, XXI), pp. 1,690f; The Times, May-June 1818.
40. Accum, Adulteration of Food, pp. 243-9. For details of Accum's career see Burnett, Plenty and Want, pp. 74-7. Burnett praises Accum for 'a thoroughly dispassionate and scientific manner' and for substituting research for prejudiced and exaggerated reports of adulteration. In the case of coffee, however, nearly all of the material presented by Accum was derived from the Excise hearings. For a critique of Accum's objectivity and methodology in his contribution to the pure water controversy, see Hamlin, Science of Impurity, pp. 52-4, 65.
41. Accum, Adulteration of Food, pp. 243-9. For details of Accum's career see Burnett, Plenty and Want, pp. 74-7. Burnett praises Accum for 'a thoroughly dispassionate and scientific manner' and for substituting research for prejudiced and exaggerated reports of adulteration. In the case of coffee, however, nearly all of the material presented by Accum was derived from the Excise hearings. For a critique of Accum's objectivity and methodology in his contribution to the pure water controversy, see Hamlin, Science of Impurity, pp. 52-4, 65.
42. Accum, Adulteration of Food, pp. 243-9. For details of Accum's career see Burnett, Plenty and Want, pp. 74-7. Burnett praises Accum for 'a thoroughly dispassionate and scientific manner' and for substituting research for prejudiced and exaggerated reports of adulteration. In the case of coffee, however, nearly all of the material presented by Accum was derived from the Excise hearings. For a critique of Accum's objectivity and methodology in his contribution to the pure water controversy, see Hamlin, Science of Impurity, pp. 52-4, 65.
43. The Times, 18 May 1818.
44. Accum, Treatise, pp. 247-9. These factors strongly suggest that the cases reported by Accum resulted from information received rather than a random selection of retailers.
45. Report on the Adulteration of Food (P.P., 1855, VIII), pp. 27-8.
46. 3 Geo. 4. c. 53 (1822).
47. House of Commons, Sessional Papers (1849, L), p. 338.
48. A. Harris, 'Chicory in Yorkshire: A Crop and its Cultivation', Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 59 (1987), 142; Report Adulteration Food, (P.P., 1856, VIII), pp. 49, 194. For details of Duckworth's patent, see The Commissioners of Patents, Patent Specifications, 1848-55 (London, 1857), A.D. 1850, no. 13,346.
49. A. Harris, 'Chicory in Yorkshire: A Crop and its Cultivation', Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 59 (1987), 142; Report Adulteration Food, (P.P., 1856, VIII), pp. 49, 194. For details of Duckworth's patent, see The Commissioners of Patents, Patent Specifications, 1848-55 (London, 1857), A.D. 1850, no. 13,346.
50. House of Commons, Sessional Papers (1849, L), p. 341; W. Law, The History of Coffee, including a Chapter on Chicory (London, 1850), pp. 37-8. William Law was an Edinburgh coffee merchant.
51. House of Commons, Sessional Papers (1849, L), p. 341; W. Law, The History of Coffee, including a Chapter on Chicory (London, 1850), pp. 37-8. William Law was an Edinburgh coffee merchant.
52. Baring was a member of the well-known family of financiers whose representatives gave financial support in 1853 to the lobbying campaign against chicory waged by Ceylon planters.
53. Law, History of Coffee, p. 39.
54. House of Commons, Hansard Debates (1849, CIII), columns 749, 957-62; Law, History of Coffee, pp. 39-40. Anstey's intervention is notable in view of his strong commitment to the principles of free trade and his consistent calls for the abolition of customs and excise duties. In his speech he noted that 91 merchants and planters had presented memorials against coffee adulteration, headed by Baring.
55. House of Commons, Hansard Debates (1849, CIII), columns 749, 957-62; Law, History of Coffee, pp. 39-40. Anstey's intervention is notable in view of his strong commitment to the principles of free trade and his consistent calls for the abolition of customs and excise duties. In his speech he noted that 91 merchants and planters had presented memorials against coffee adulteration, headed by Baring.
56. Hansard Debates, (1850, CXI), columns 268-79; Law, History of Coffee, pp. 41-2.
57. Hansard Debates, (1850, CXI), columns 268-79; Law, History of Coffee, pp. 41-2.
58. On the position of chemists as sources of expert opinion, see Hamlin, Science of Impurity, pp. 45-50, 120-1.
59. Hassall's autobiography recalls that an abstract of the paper appeared before Chancellor Wood made his statement before the Commons, but The Times, 5 August 1850, states that the society had met on the previous Friday, see A. H. Hassall, The Narrative of a Busy Life: An Autobiography (London, 1893), p. 44; Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall, p. 15.
60. Hassall's autobiography recalls that an abstract of the paper appeared before Chancellor Wood made his statement before the Commons, but The Times, 5 August 1850, states that the society had met on the previous Friday, see A. H. Hassall, The Narrative of a Busy Life: An Autobiography (London, 1893), p. 44; Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall, p. 15.
61. Hassall's autobiography recalls that an abstract of the paper appeared before Chancellor Wood made his statement before the Commons, but The Times, 5 August 1850, states that the society had met on the previous Friday, see A. H. Hassall, The Narrative of a Busy Life: An Autobiography (London, 1893), p. 44; Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall, p. 15.
62. Smith 'Accounting for Taste', pp. 196-9; F. W. Hirst, Gladstone as Financier and Economist (London, 1931), pp. 71, 79; F. E. Hyde, Mr Gladstone at the Board of Trade (London, 1934), pp. 99-101. The main effect of the measures taken in the 1840s was to increase the quantity of foreign coffee entering Britain, as the duty fell from a nominal 9d per 1b to 8d in 1842, and from 6d to 4d in 1844.
63. Smith 'Accounting for Taste', pp. 196-9; F. W. Hirst, Gladstone as Financier and Economist (London, 1931), pp. 71, 79; F. E. Hyde, Mr Gladstone at the Board of Trade (London, 1934), pp. 99-101. The main effect of the measures taken in the 1840s was to increase the quantity of foreign coffee entering Britain, as the duty fell from a nominal 9d per 1b to 8d in 1842, and from 6d to 4d in 1844.
64. Smith 'Accounting for Taste', pp. 196-9; F. W. Hirst, Gladstone as Financier and Economist (London, 1931), pp. 71, 79; F. E. Hyde, Mr Gladstone at the Board of Trade (London, 1934), pp. 99-101. The main effect of the measures taken in the 1840s was to increase the quantity of foreign coffee entering Britain, as the duty fell from a nominal 9d per 1b to 8d in 1842, and from 6d to 4d in 1844.
65. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, pp. 709-10.
66. J. Burnett, 'Coffee in the British Diet, 1650-1990', in D. U. Ball (ed.), Coffee in the Context of European Habits (Zürich, 1991), p. 44; Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, pp. 709-10; G. Clark, M. Huberman, and P. Lindert, 'A British Food Puzzle, 1770-1850', Economic History Review, XLVIII (1995) p. 223; S. Horrell, 'Home Demand and British Industrialisation', Journal of Economic History, 56 (1996), p. 577.
67. J. Burnett, 'Coffee in the British Diet, 1650-1990', in D. U. Ball (ed.), Coffee in the Context of European Habits (Zürich, 1991), p. 44; Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, pp. 709-10; G. Clark, M. Huberman, and P. Lindert, 'A British Food Puzzle, 1770-1850', Economic History Review, XLVIII (1995) p. 223; S. Horrell, 'Home Demand and British Industrialisation', Journal of Economic History, 56 (1996), p. 577.
68. J. Burnett, 'Coffee in the British Diet, 1650-1990', in D. U. Ball (ed.), Coffee in the Context of European Habits (Zürich, 1991), p. 44; Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, pp. 709-10; G. Clark, M. Huberman, and P. Lindert, 'A British Food Puzzle, 1770-1850', Economic History Review, XLVIII (1995) p. 223; S. Horrell, 'Home Demand and British Industrialisation', Journal of Economic History, 56 (1996), p. 577.
69. J. Burnett, 'Coffee in the British Diet, 1650-1990', in D. U. Ball (ed.), Coffee in the Context of European Habits (Zürich, 1991), p. 44; Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, pp. 709-10; G. Clark, M. Huberman, and P. Lindert, 'A British Food Puzzle, 1770-1850', Economic History Review, XLVIII (1995) p. 223; S. Horrell, 'Home Demand and British Industrialisation', Journal of Economic History, 56 (1996), p. 577.
70. P. Clark, The English Alehouse: A Social History, 1200-1830 (London, 1983), p. 14.
71. Burnett, 'Coffee in the British Diet', pp. 43-4.
72. J. Stevenson, Advice Medical and Economical, relative to the Purchase and Consumption of Tea, Coffee, and Chocolate (London, 1830), pp. 57-60.
73. [C.A. Field], A Treatise on the Natural History, Preparation, and Uses of Coffee, as an Article of Diet and Medicine (London, 1815), p. 21.
74. A. Saint-Arroman, De l'action du cafe, du thé et du chocolat sur la santé, et de leur influence sur l'intelligence et le moral de l'homme (Turin, 1845), translated into English and published as Coffee, Tea and Chocolate: Their Influence upon the Health, the Intellect, and the Moral Nature of Man (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 66; W. A. Alcott, Tea and Coffee: their Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Effects on the Human System (New York, 1840), pp. 65-71, 62-79, 83-5, 98-9.
75. A. Saint-Arroman, De l'action du cafe, du thé et du chocolat sur la santé, et de leur influence sur l'intelligence et le moral de l'homme (Turin, 1845), translated into English and published as Coffee, Tea and Chocolate: Their Influence upon the Health, the Intellect, and the Moral Nature of Man (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 66; W. A. Alcott, Tea and Coffee: their Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Effects on the Human System (New York, 1840), pp. 65-71, 62-79, 83-5, 98-9.
76. A. Saint-Arroman, De l'action du cafe, du thé et du chocolat sur la santé, et de leur influence sur l'intelligence et le moral de l'homme (Turin, 1845), translated into English and published as Coffee, Tea and Chocolate: Their Influence upon the Health, the Intellect, and the Moral Nature of Man (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 66; W. A. Alcott, Tea and Coffee: their Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Effects on the Human System (New York, 1840), pp. 65-71, 62-79, 83-5, 98-9.
77. Lancet, 1851, II, p.175 and 1854, I, p. 102.
78. Lancet, 1851, II, p.175 and 1854, I, p. 102.
79. Harris, 'Chicory in Yorkshire', p. 140.
80. Hassall, An Autobiography, pp. 13-19.
81. Ibid., pp. 24-41; idem., A History of the British Freshwater Algae (London, 1845); idem., The Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Body (London, 1852).
82. Ibid., pp. 24-41; idem., A History of the British Freshwater Algae (London, 1845); idem., The Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Body (London, 1852).
83. Ibid., pp. 24-41; idem., A History of the British Freshwater Algae (London, 1845); idem., The Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Body (London, 1852).
84. Bracegirdle, 'Microscopical Tradition', p. 111. As a result of publishing his textbook the thymic corpuscles were named after Hassall, although they had earlier been described in an essay of 1845 by John Simon, see J. N. Blau, 'Hassall - Physician and Microscopist', British Medical Journal (1968), p. 618.
85. Bracegirdle, 'Microscopical Tradition', p. 111. As a result of publishing his textbook the thymic corpuscles were named after Hassall, although they had earlier been described in an essay of 1845 by John Simon, see J. N. Blau, 'Hassall - Physician and Microscopist', British Medical Journal (1968), p. 618.
86. The Times, 5 August 1850; Lancet, 1851, II, pp. 213-14, 276; A. H. Hassall, Food and its Adulterations (London, 1855), pp. 7-8.
87. The Times, 5 August 1850; Lancet, 1851, II, pp. 213-14, 276; A. H. Hassall, Food and its Adulterations (London, 1855), pp. 7-8.
88. The Times, 5 August 1850; Lancet, 1851, II, pp. 213-14, 276; A. H. Hassall, Food and its Adulterations (London, 1855), pp. 7-8.
89. The authority for horse liver was probably John Mitchell; see Burnett, Plenty and Want, p. 78.
90. Lancet, 1851, II, p. 419; Hansard Debates (1850, CXI), p. 270. During the 1840s The Times revived its campaign against chicory adulteration. See, for example, The Times, 2 April 1841, 1 August 1843, 2 May 1850, 11 July 1850, 5 August 1850. In 1850 Peter Lund Simmonds (a former West India planter and editor of The Globe) published Coffee, as it is, and as it ought to be. Simmonds was among witnesses called before the 1855-7 Select Committee on Adulteration.
91. Lancet, 1851, II, p. 419; Hansard Debates (1850, CXI), p. 270. During the 1840s The Times revived its campaign against chicory adulteration. See, for example, The Times, 2 April 1841, 1 August 1843, 2 May 1850, 11 July 1850, 5 August 1850. In 1850 Peter Lund Simmonds (a former West India planter and editor of The Globe) published Coffee, as it is, and as it ought to be. Simmonds was among witnesses called before the 1855-7 Select Committee on Adulteration.
92. Lancet, 1851, II, p. 419; Hansard Debates (1850, CXI), p. 270. During the 1840s The Times revived its campaign against chicory adulteration. See, for example, The Times, 2 April 1841, 1 August 1843, 2 May 1850, 11 July 1850, 5 August 1850. In 1850 Peter Lund Simmonds (a former West India planter and editor of The Globe) published Coffee, as it is, and as it ought to be. Simmonds was among witnesses called before the 1855-7 Select Committee on Adulteration.
93. Lancet, 1852, II, pp. 159, 204.
94. Three orders were issued between 1853 and 1854 regulating labelling. The first, dated 28 February 1853, permitted the sale of packages labelled 'mixture of chicory and coffee' and prohibited all other additives. The second, issued in May 1853, altered the wording to read, 'this is sold as a mixture of chicory and coffee' and specified that the label be printed on the outside of the package in a prescribed manner. The third, dated 12 August 1854, declared that pure coffee must be sold when asked for and that in such cases the label would not indemnify the vendor who supplied a mixture, Report from the Select Committee appointed to inquire into the Adulteration of Food Act (P.P., 1874, VI, p. 361).
95. Lancet, 1853, I, p. 391.
96. Hansard Debates (1850, CXI), p. 272.
97. [Durnford, Power, and Daniell], Correspondence, pp. 41-2.
98. Report Adulteration Food (P.P., 1856, VIII), p. 146.
99. Hassall, An Autobiography, p. 45.
100. Hassall's expenses averaged £245 5s per annum between 1851 and 1854, of which between £100 and £150 comprised his salary; see [Durnford, Power, and Daniell], Correspondence, p. 45. Durnford, Power, and Daniel reproduce the agreement drawn up between Wakley and Hassall in 1853, which is also printed in Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall, pp. 92-5.
101. Hassall's expenses averaged £245 5s per annum between 1851 and 1854, of which between £100 and £150 comprised his salary; see [Durnford, Power, and Daniell], Correspondence, p. 45. Durnford, Power, and Daniel reproduce the agreement drawn up between Wakley and Hassall in 1853, which is also printed in Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall, pp. 92-5.
102. Lancet, 1853, I, p. 391; Hassall, An Autobiography, pp. 45-6.
103. Lancet, 1853, I, p. 391; Hassall, An Autobiography, pp. 45-6.
104. Lancet, 1853, I, pp. 391, 477-9. In the first set of samples a number of the labels were also found to be printed inside the container.
105. It should be noted that in the Lancet the results are not directly compared in tabular form for the benefit of readers.
106. Lancet, 1851, I, pp. 302f, 526f, II, p. 505; Hassall, Food and its Adulterations, pp. vi-vii, ix-xiii, 7-10, 179.
107. Lancet, 1851, I, pp. 302f, 526f, II, p. 505; Hassall, Food and its Adulterations, pp. vi-vii, ix-xiii, 7-10, 179.
108. See, for example, Lancet, I, p. 466. A rare exception is the legend which accompanies a slide of oak-bark powder, which Hassall explains was 'drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140 diameters' (Lancet, 1851, I, p. 526).
109. See, for example, Lancet, I, p. 466. A rare exception is the legend which accompanies a slide of oak-bark powder, which Hassall explains was 'drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140 diameters' (Lancet, 1851, I, p. 526).
110. See Dennis, 'Graphic Understanding', 309-62; L. Daston and P. Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128.
111. See Dennis, 'Graphic Understanding', 309-62; L. Daston and P. Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128.
112. Hamlin, Science of Purity, p.104.
113. Report Adulteration Food (P.P., 1855, VIII), p. 52.
114. Lancet, 1853, I, p. 451.
115. Report Adulteration Food (P.P., 1856, VIII), pp. 51, 63.
116. Reports Submitted to John Wood, chairman of the Honourable Board of Inland Revenue, 1852, JJM-C, 3,093, fol., Johann Jacobs Museum, Zürich. The section of the reports dealing with microscopy is referred to in Report Adulteration Food (P.P., 1856, VIII), p. 13.
117. J. Bell, The Analysis and Adulteration of Foods (London, 1881), pp. 51-9.
118. B. Dyer, Fifty Years of the Society of Public Analysts (Cambridge, 1932), p. 87.
119. [Durnford, Power, and Daniell], Correspondence, pp. 8-25, 56-7. This pamphlet was published after the Lancet refused to print a condemnation of Letheby's attack on Hassall and is supportive of the latter's position.
120. Report for the Select Committee on Food Products Adulteration (P.P., 1894, XII), pp. 53-4.
121. Report Adulteration Food (P.P., 1856, VIII), p. 297a.
122. Cited in D. Murray, 'Food Adulteration: A Study into the Activities of the Lancet's Analytical Sanitary Commission, 1850-1880' (unpublished B.Sc diss., Wellcome Medical History Library, 1990), p. 56.
123. Hassall, An Autobiography, pp. 49-50. Redwood was the curator of the Pharmaceutical Society who in evidence to the Select Committee stated he believed that a distinction ought to be drawn between impurity and adulteration, see Report Adulteration Foods (P.P., 1855, VIII), p. 123.
124. Hassall, An Autobiography, pp. 49-50. Redwood was the curator of the Pharmaceutical Society who in evidence to the Select Committee stated he believed that a distinction ought to be drawn between impurity and adulteration, see Report Adulteration Foods (P.P., 1855, VIII), p. 123.
125. Report Adulteration Foods (P.P., 1856, VIII), pp. 89-90; House of Commons, Sessional Papers (1849, L), p. 341. A similar controversy was generated in Rochdale over the initial preference of consumers for bread whitened with alum.
126. Report Adulteration Foods (P.P., 1856, VIII), pp. 89-90; House of Commons, Sessional Papers (1849, L), p. 341. A similar controversy was generated in Rochdale over the initial preference of consumers for bread whitened with alum.
127. Lancet, 1851, II, p. 86.
128. Report of Thomas Graham, John Senhouse, and Dugald Campbell, submitted to John Wood, Chairman of the Honourable Board of the Inland Revenue, 1852, JJM-C 3,093 fol. Johann Jacobs Museum, Zürich.
129. L. Foster, The Chicory Duty (York, 1902), pp. 5-8.
130. K. J. Allison (ed.), The Victoria History of the Counties of England: A History of the County of York, East Riding (6 Vols; London, 1969-1976), III, p. 9; Foster, Chicory Duty, pp. 4-5.
131. K. J. Allison (ed.), The Victoria History of the Counties of England: A History of the County of York, East Riding (6 Vols; London, 1969-1976), III, p. 9; Foster, Chicory Duty, pp. 4-5.
132. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, p. 710.
133. S. M. Horrocks, 'Quality Control and Research: the Role of Scientists in the British Food Industry, 1790-1939' in J. Burnett and D. J. Oddy (eds.), The Origins and Development of Food Policies in Europe (London and New York, 1994), p. 136.
134. Hassall, Narrative, p. 51.