Force spectroscopy on single passive biomolecules and single biomolecular bonds

Physics Report

Volumn 346, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 343-385

  Merkel, Rudolf ^a  

^a TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

82.20.Mj; 87.15.By; 87.15.He; 87.15.La; 87.64. t; Biophysics; Highly sensitive force measurement devices; Single molecule experiments

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035373775     PISSN: 03701573     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0370-1573(00)00103-4     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. Ahsan A., Rudnick J., Bruinsma R. Elasticity theory of the B-DNA to S-DNA transition. Biophys. J. 74:1998;132-137.
2. Akamine S., Barrett R.C., Quate C.F. Improved AFM images using microcantilevers with sharp tips. Appl. Phys. Lett. 57:1990;316-318.
3. Alberts B., Bray D., Lewis J., Raff M., Roberts K., Watson J.D. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 1994;Garland Publishing, New York, USA.
4. Alexander S., Hellemans L., Marti O., Schneir J., Elings V., Hansma P.K., Longmire M., Gurley J. An atomic-resolution atomic-force microscope implemented using an optical lever. J. Appl. Phys. 65:1989;164-167.
5. J.-F. Allemand, Micro-manipulations de molècules d'ADN isolées, Thèse de doctorat, École Normale Supérieure, Department de Physique, 1997.
6. Allemand J.-F., Bensimon D., Lavery R., Croquette V. Stretched and overwound DNA forms a Pauling-like structure with exposed bases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:1998;14152-14157.
7. Allen S., Chen X., Davies J., Davies M.C., Dawkes A.C., Edwards J.C., Roberts C.J., Sefton J., Tendler S.J.B., Williams P.M. Detection of antigen-antibody binding events with the atomic force microscope. Biochemistry. 36:1997;7457-7463.
8. Alon R., Chen S., Fuhlbrigge R., Puri K.D., Springer T.A. The kinetics and shear threshold of transient and rolling interactions of L-selectin with its ligand on leukocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:1998;11631-11636.
9. R. Alon, S. Chen, K.D. Puri, E.B. Finger, T.A. Springer, The kinetics of L-selectin tethers and the mechanics of selectin-mediated rolling, J. Cell Biol. 138 (1997) 1169-1180. *
10. Alon R., Hammer D.A., Springer T.A. Lifetime of the P-selectin-carbohydrate bond and its response to tensile force in hydrodynamic flow. Nature. 374:1995;539-542.
11. Ashkin A. Acceleration and trapping of particles by radiation pressure. Phys. Rev. Lett. 24:1970;156-159.
12. Ashkin A. Forces of a single-beam gradient laser trap on a dielectric sphere in the ray optics regime. Sheetz M.P. Laser Tweezers in Cell Biology. Methods In Cell Biology. Vol. 55:1998;1-28 Academic Press, San Diego, USA.
13. Ashkin A., Dziedzic J.M., Bjorkholm J.E., Chu S. Observation of a single-beam gradient force optical trap for dielectric particles. Opt. Lett. 11:1986;288-290.
14. Baumann C.G., Smith S.B., Bloomfield V.A., Bustamante C. Ionic effects on the elasticity of single DNA molecules. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94:1997;6185-6190.
15. Bayer E.A., Wilchek M. Avidin column as a highly efficient and stable alternative for immobilization of ligands for affinity chromatography. J. Molecular Recognition. 3:1990;102-107.
16. G.I. Bell, Models for the specific adhesion of cells to cells, Science 200 (1978) 618-627. *
17. Binnig G., Quate C.F., Gerber C. Atomic force microscope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 56:1986;930-933.
18. Block S.M. Making light work with optical tweezers. Nature. 360:1992;493-495.
19. Bockelmann U., Essevaz-Roulet B., Heslot F. Molecular stick-slip motion revealed by opening DNA with piconewton forces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 79:1997;4489-4492.
20. U. Bockelmann, B. Essevaz-Roulet, F. Heslot, DNA strand separation studied by single molecule force measurements, Phys. Rev. E 58 (1998) 2386-2394. *
21. Bongrand P. Ligand-receptor interactions. Reports on Progress in Physics. 62:1999;921-968.
22. Bouchiat C., Mézard M. Elasticity model of a supercoiled DNA molecule. Phys. Rev. Lett. 80:1998;1556-1559.
23. Bouchiat C., Wang M.D., Allemand J.-F., Strick T., Block S.M., Croquette V. Estimating the persistence length of a worm-like chain molecule from force-extension measurements. Biophys. J. 76:1999;409-413.
24. Bustamante C., Marko J.F., Siggia E.D., Smith S. Entropic elasticity of. λ -phage DNA Science. 265:1994;1599-1600.
25. Bustamante C., Rivetti C., Keller D.J. Scanning force microscopy under aqueous solutions. Current Opinion in Structural Biol. 7:1997;709-716.
26. Butler J.E., Ni L., Nessler R., Joshi K.S., Suter M., Rosenberg B., Chang J., Brown W.R., Cantarero L.A. The physical and functional behavior of capture antibodies adsorbed on polysterene. J. Immunological Methods. 150:1992;77-90.
27. Cabral J.M.S., Kennedy J.F. Covalent and coordination immobilization of proteins. Taylor R.F. Protein Immobilization: Fundamentals and Applications. Bioprocess Technology. Vol. 14:1991;73-138 Marcel Dekker, New York, USA.
28. M. Carrion-Vazquez, A.F. Oberhauser, S.B. Fowler, P.E. Marszalek, S.E. Broedel, J. Clarke, J.M. Fernandez, Mechanical and chemical unfolding of a single protein: A comparison, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 (1999) 3694-3699. *
29. Chen S., Alon R., Fuhlbrigge R.C., Springer T.A. Rolling and transient tethering of leukocyzes on antibodies reveal specializations of selectins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94:1997;3172-3177.
30. Chicurel M.E., Chen C.S., Ingber D.E. Cellular control lies in the balance of forces. Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 10:1998;232-239.
31. S. Chu, Laser trapping of neutral particles, Scientific American, February, 1992, 71-76.
32. Clausen-Schaumann H., Rief M., Tolksdorf C., Gaub H.E. Mechanical stability of single DNA molecules. Biophys. J. 78:2000;1997-2007.
33. Clausen-Schaumann H., Seitz M., Krautbauer R., Gaub H.E. Force spectroscopy with single bio-molecules. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 4:2000;524-530.
34. Cluzel P., Lebrun A., Heller C., Lavery R., Viovy J.-L., Chatenay D., Caron F. DNA: An extensible molecule. Science. 271:1996;792-794.
35. Creighton T.E. Proteins. Structures and Molecular Properties. 1993;Freeman, New York, USA.
36. Dabros T., Warszynski P., van de Ven T.G.M. Motion of latex spheres tethered to a surface. J. Colloid and Interface Science. 162:1994;254-256.
37. Dammer U., Hegner M., Anselmetti D., Wagner P., Dreier M., Huber W., Güntherodt H.-J. Specific antigen. / antibody interactions measured by force microscopy Biophys. J. 70:1996;2437-2441.
38. Dammer U., Popescu O., Wagner P., Anselmetti D., Güntherodt H.-J., Misevic G.N. Binding strength between cell adhesion proteoglycans measured by atomic force microscopy. Science. 267:1995;1173-1175.
39. Denk W., Webb W.W. Optical measurements of picometer displacements of transparent microscopic objects. Appl. Optics. 29:1990;2382-2390.
40. Dickerson R.E., Geis I. The Structure and Action of Proteins. 1969;Harper and Row, New York, USA.
41. Drake B., Prater C.B., Weisenhorn A.L., Gould S.A.C., Albrecht T.R., Quate C.F., Cannell D.S., Hansma H.G., Hansma P.K. Imaging crystals, polymers, and processes in water with the atomic force microscope. Science. 243:1989;1586-1589.
42. Engel A., Gaub H.E., Müller D.J. Atomic force microscopy: A forceful way with single molecules. Curr. Biol. 9:1999;R133-R136.
43. Erickson H.P. Reversible unfolding of fibronectin type III and immunoglobulin domains provides the structural basis for stretch and elasticity of titin and fibronectin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:1994;10114-10118.
44. Essevaz-Roulet B., Bockelmann U., Heslot F. Mechanical separation of the complementary strands of DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94:1997;11935-11940.
45. Evans E. Energy landscapes of biomolecular adhesion and receptor anchoring at interfaces explored with dynamic force spectroscopy. Faraday Discuss. 111:1998;1-16.
46. Evans E., Berk D., Leung A. Detachment of agglutinin-bonded red blood cells. I. Forces to rupture molecular-point attachments. Biophys. J. 59:1991;838-848.
47. Evans E., Ludwig F. Dynamic strength of molecular anchoring and material cohesion in fluid biomembranes. J. Phys.: Condensed Matter. 12:2000;A315-A320.
48. E. Evans, K. Ritchie, Dynamic strength of molecular adhesion bonds, Biophys. J. 72 (1997) 1541-1555. *
49. Evans E., Ritchie K. Strength of a weak bond connecting flexible polymer chains. Biophys. J. 76:1999;2439-2447.
50. Evans E., Ritchie K., Merkel R. Sensitive force technique to probe molecular adhesion and structural linkages at biological interfaces. Biophys. J. 68:1995;2580-2587.
51. Evans E., Yeung A. Hidden dynamics in rapid changes of bilayer shape. Chem. Phys. Lipids. 73:1994;39-56.
52. E.A. Evans, Structure and deformation properties of red blood cells: Concepts and quantitative methods in: J.N. Abelson, M.I. Simon (Eds.), Methods in Enzymology, Academic Press, San Diego, USA, 1989, 173, pp. 3-34.
53. Finer J.T., Simmons R.M., Spudich J.A. Single myosin molecule mechanics: piconewton forces and nanometre steps. Nature. 368:1994;113-119.
54. Fixman M., Kovac J. Polymer conformational statistics. III. Modified Gaussian models of stiff chains. J. Chem. Phys. 58:1973;1564-1568.
55. Florin E.-L., Moy V.T., Gaub H.E. Adhesion forces between individual ligand-receptor pairs. Science. 264:1994;415-417.
56. Fritz J., Anselmetti D., Jarchow J., Fernàndez-Busquets X. Probing single biomolecules with atomic force microscopy. J. Struct. Biol. 119:1997;165-171.
57. J. Fritz, A.G. Katopodis, F. Kolbinger, D. Anselmetti, Force-mediated kinetics of single P-selectin / ligand complexes observed by atomic force microscopy, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 (1998) 12283-12288. *
58. Funatsu T., Higuchi H., Ishiwata S. Elastic filaments in skeletal muscle revealed by selective removal of thin filaments with plasma gelsolin. J. Cell Biol. 110:1990;53-62.
59. Ghislain L.P., Switz N.A., Webb W.W. Measurement of small forces using an optical trap. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 65:1994;2762-2768.
60. Gilbert R.G., Smith S.C. Theory of Unimolecular and Recombination Reactions. 1990;Blackwell Science Publications, Oxford, UK.
61. Gittes F., Schmidt C.F. Interference model for back-focal-plane displacement detection in optical tweezers. Opt. Lett. 23:1998;7-9.
62. Goldman A.J., Cox R.G., Brenner H. Slow viscous motion of a sphere parallel to a plane wall. II. Couette flow. Chem. Eng. Sci. 22:1967;653-660.
63. M. Grandbois, M. Beyer, M. Rief, H. Clausen-Schaumann, H.E. Gaub, How strong is a covalent bond?, Science 283 1999 1727-1730. *
64. Gregorius K., Mouritsen S., Elsner H.I. Hydrocoating: a new method for coupling biomolecules to solid phases. J. Immunol. Methods. 181:1995;65-73.
65. Guth E., Mark H. Zur innermolekularen Statistik, insbesondere bei Kettenmolekülen I. Monatshefte für Chemie. 65:1935;93-121.
66. Hänggi P., Talkner P., Borkovec M. Reaction-rate theory: fifty years after Kramers. Rev. Mod. Phys. 62:1990;251-341.
67. Hansma H.G., Hoh J.H. Biomolecular imaging with the atomic force microscope. Ann. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 23:1994;115-139.
68. Heinz W.F., Hoh J.H. Spatially resolved force spectroscopy of biological surfaces using the atomic force microscope. Trends Biotechnol. 17:1999;143-150.
69. Hermanson G.T. Bioconjugate Techniques. 1996;Academic Press, San Diego, USA.
70. Heymann B., Grubmüller H. `Chair-boat' transitions and side groups affect the stiffness of polysaccharides. Chem. Phys. Lett. 305:1999;202-208.
71. Heymann B., Grubmüller H. Dynamic force spectroscopy of molecular adhesion bonds. Phys. Rev. Lett. 84:2000;6126-6129.
72. Hinterdorfer P., Baumgartner W., Gruber H.J., Schilcher K., Schindler H. Detection and localization of individual antibody-antigen recognition events by atomic force microscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;3477-3481.
73. Hoh J.H., Hansma P.K. Atomic force microscopy for high-resolution imaging in cell biology. Trends Cell Biol. 2:1992;208-213.
74. Holmberg K., Bergström K., Stark M.-B. Immobilization of proteins via PEG chains. Harris J.M. Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Chemistry: Biotechnical and Biomedical Applications. 1992;303-324 Plenum Press, New York, USA.
75. Izrailev S., Stepaniants S., Balsera M., Oono Y., Schulten K. Molecular dynamics study of unbinding of the avidin-biotin complex. Biophys. J. 72:1997;1568-1581.
76. Johnsson B., Löfås S., Lindquist G. Immobilization of proteins to a carboxymethyldextran-modified gold surface for biospecific interaction analysis in surface plasmon resonance sensors. Anal. Biochem. 198:1991;268-277.
77. Johnsson B., Löfås S., Lindquist G., Edström Å., Müller-Hillgren R.-M., Hansson A. Comparison of methods for immobilization to carboxymethyl dextran sensor surfaces by analysis of the specific activity of monoclonal antibodies. J. Mol. Recognition. 8:1995;125-131.
78. Kamien R.D., Lubensky T.C., Nelson P., O'Hern C.S. Direct determination of DNA twist-stretch coupling. Europhys. Lett. 38:1997;237-242.
79. Kaplanski G., Farnarier C., Tissot O., Pierres A., Benoliel A.-M., Alessi M.-C., Kaplanski S., Bongrand P. Granulocyte-endothelium initial adhesion. Biophys. J. 64:1993;1922-1933.
80. M.S.Z. Kellermayer, S.B. Smith, H.L. Granzier, C. Bustamante, Folding-unfolding transitions in single titin molecules characterized with laser tweezers, Science 276 (1997) 1112-1116. *
81. Khan S., Sheetz M.P. Force effects on biochemical kinetics. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 66:1997;785-805.
82. Kienberger F., Kada G., Gruber H.J., Pastushenko V.P., Riener C., Trieb M., Knaus H.-G., Schindler H., Hinterdorfer P. Recognition force spectroscopy studies of the NTA-His6 bond. Single Molecules. 1:2000;59-65.
83. Kierstan M.P.J., Coughlan M.P. Immobilization of proteins by noncovalent procedures: principles and applications. Taylor R.F. Protein Immobilization. Fundamentals and Applications of Bioprocess Technology, Vol. 14. 1991;73-138 Marcel Dekker, New York, USA.
84. Kishino A., Yanagida T. Force measurements by micromanipulation of a single actin filament by glass needles. Nature. 334:1988;74-76.
85. Klimov D.K., Thirumalai D. Stretching single-domain proteins: phase diagrams and kinetics of force-induced unfolding. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 96:1999;6166-6170.
86. Konrad M.W., Bolonick J.I. Molecular dynamics simulation of DNA stretching is consistent with the tension observed for extension and strand separation and predicts a novel ladder structure. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118:1996;10989-10994.
87. Kosikov K.M., Gorin A.A., Zhurkin V.B., Olson W.K. DNA stretching and compression: large-scale simulations of double helical structures. J. Mol. Biol. 289:1999;1301-1326.
88. Kratky O., Porod G. Röntgenuntersuchung gelöster Fadenmoleküle. Recueil des Traveaux Chimiques de Pays-Bas. 68:1949;1106-1122.
89. Kreuzer H.J., Wang R.L.C., Grunze M. Effect of stretching on the molecular conformation of oligo (ethylene oxide): a theoretical study. New J. Phys. 1:1999;211-2116.
90. Kuhn W. Über die Gestalt fadenförmiger Moleküle in Lösungen. Kolloid-Zeitschrift. 68:1934;2-15.
91. Kuo S.C., Sheetz M.P. Force of single kinesin molecules measured with optical tweezers. Science. 260:1993;232-234.
92. Kwong D., Tees D.F.J., Goldsmith H.L. Kinetics and locus of failure of receptor-ligand-mediated adhesion between latex spheres. II. Protein-protein bond. Biophys. J. 71:1996;1115-1122.
93. Labeit S., Kolmerer B. Titins: giant proteins in charge of muscle ultrastructure and elasticity. Science. 270:1995;293-296.
94. Lebrun A., Lavery R. Modelling extreme stretching of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 24:1996;2260-2267.
95. Lee G.U., Chrisey L.A., Colton R.J. Direct measurement of the forces between complementary strands of DNA. Science. 266:1994;771-773.
96. Lee G.U., Kidwell D.A., Colton R.J. Sensing discrete streptavidin-biotin interactions with atomic force microscopy. Langmuir. 10:1994;354-357.
97. J.F. Leger, G. Romano, A. Sarkar, J. Robert, L. Bourdieu, D. Chatenay, J.F. Marko, Structural transitions of a twisted and stretched DNA molecule, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83 (1999) 1066-1069. *
98. Li H., Liu B., Zhang X., Gao C., Shen J., Zou G. Single-molecule force spectroscopy on poly(acrylic acid) by AFM. Langmuir. 15:1999;2120-2124.
99. Li H., Rief M., Oesterhelt F., Gaub H.E. Single-molecule force spectroscopy on xanthan by AFM. Adv. Mater. 3:1998;316-319.
100. Li H., Rief M., Oesterhelt F., Gaub H.E., Zhang X., Shen J. Single-molecule force spectroscopy on polysaccharides by AFM - nanomechanical fingerprint of. α -(1,4)-linked polysaccharides Chem. Phys. Lett. 305:1999;197-201.
101. Li H., Zhang W., Zhang X., Shen J., Liu B., Gao C., Zou G. Single molecule force spectroscopy on poly(vinyl alcohol) by atomic force microscopy. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 19:1998;609-611.
102. Löfås S., Johnsson B., Edström A., Hansson A., Lindquist G., Müller-Hillgren R.-H., Stigh L. Methods for site controlled coupling to carboxymethyldextran surfaces in surface plasmon resonance sensors. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 10:1995;813-822.
103. Long M., Goldsmith H.L., Tees D.F.J., Zhu C. Probabilistic modeling of shear-induced formation and breakage of doublets cross-linked by receptor-ligand bonds. Biophys. J. 76:1999;1112-1128.
104. Marko J.F. Stretching must twist DNA. Europhys. Lett. 38:1997;183-188.
105. Marko J.F. DNA under high tension: overstretching, undertwisting, and relaxation dynamics. Phys. Rev. E. 57:1998;2134-2149.
106. Marko J.F., Siggia E.D. Fluctuations and supercoiling of DNA. Science. 265:1994;506-508.
107. Marko J.F., Siggia E.D. Statistical mechanics of supercoiled DNA. Phys. Rev. E. 52:1995;2912-2938.
108. Marko J.F., Siggia E.D. Stretching DNA. Macromolecules. 28:1995;8759-8770.
109. Marszalek P.E., Lu H., Li H., Carrion-Vazquez M., Oberhauser A.F., Schulten K., Fernandez J.M. Mechanical unfolding intermediates in titin modules. Nature. 402:1999;100-103.
110. Marszalek P.E., Oberhauser A.F., Pang Y.-P., Fernandez J.M. Polysaccharide elasticity governed by chair-boat transitions of the glucopyranose ring. Nature. 396:1998;661-664.
111. Mehta A.D., Pullen K.A., Spudich J.A. Single molecule biochemistry using optical tweezers. FEBS Lett. 430:1998;23-27.
112. Mehta A.D., Rief M., Spudich J.A., Smith D.A., Simmons R.M. Single-molecule biomechanics with optical methods. Science. 283:1999;1689-1695.
113. R. Merkel, P. Nassoy, A. Leung, K. Ritchie, E. Evans, Energy landscapes of receptor-ligand bonds explored with dynamic force spectroscopy, Nature 397 (1999) 50-53. *
114. Meyer G., Amer N.M. Novel optical approach to atomic force microscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 53:1988;1045-1047.
115. Mitchison J.M., Swann M.M. The mechanical properties of the cell surface. I. The cell elastimeter. J. Exp. Biol. 31:1954;443-460.
116. 2 -macroglobulin molecules with atomic force microscope FEBS Lett. 385:1996;29-33.
117. Molloy J.E., Burns J.E., Kendrick-Jones J., Tregear R.T., White D.C.S. Movement and force produced by a single myosin head. Nature. 378:1995;209-212.
118. Moroz J.D., Nelson P. Torsional directed walks, entropic elasticity, DNA twist stiffness. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94:1997;14418-14422.
119. Moy V.T., Florin E.-L., Gaub H.E. Intermolecular forces and energies between ligands and receptors. Science. 266:1994;257-259.
120. Müller D.J., Baumeister W., Engel A. Controlled unzipping of a bacterial surface layer with atomic force microscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 96:1999;13170-13174.
121. Norde W., Zoungrana T. Surface-induced changes in the structure and activity of enzymes physically immobilized at solid. / liquid interfaces Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 28:1998;133-143.
122. Noy A., Vezenov D.V., Kayyem J.F., Meade T.J., Lieber C.M. Stretching and breaking duplex DNA by chemical force microscopy. Chem. Biol. 4:1997;519-527.
123. Oberhauser A.F., Marszalek P.E., Erickson H.P., Fernandez J.M. The molecular elasticity of the extracellular matrix protein tenascin. Nature. 393:1998;181-185.
124. Odijk T. Stiff chains and filaments under tension. Macromolecules. 28:1995;7016-7018.
125. Oesterhelt F., Oesterhelt D., Pfeiffer M., Engel A., Gaub H.E., Müller D.J. Unfolding pathways of individual bacteriorhodopsins. Science. 288:2000;143-146.
126. Oesterhelt F., Rief M., Gaub H.E. Single molecule force spectroscopy by AFM indicates helical structure of poly(ethylene-glycol) in water. New J. Phys. 1:1999;61-611.
127. O'Hern C.S., Kamien R.D., Lubensky T.C., Nelson P. Elasticity theory of a twisted stack of plates. Eur. Phys. J. B. 1:1998;95-102.
128. Ortiz C., Hadziioannou G. Entropic elasticity of single polymer chains of poly(methacrylic acid) measured by atomic force microscopy. Macromolecules. 32:1999;780-787.
129. Pierres A., Benoliel A.-M., Bongrand P. Studying receptor-mediated cell adhesion at the single molecule level. Cell Adhesion Commun. 5:1998;375-395.
130. Pierres A., Benoliel A.M., Bongrand P., van der Merwe P.A. Determination of the lifetime and force dependence of interactions of single bonds between surface-attached CD2 and CD48 adhesion molecules. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;15114-15118.
131. Pluta M. Advanced Light Microscopy, Vol. 2. Specialized Methods. 1989;Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
132. K.D. Puri, S. Chen, T.A. Springer, Modifying the mechanical property and shear threshold of L-selectin adhesion independently of equilibrium properties, Nature 392 (1998) 930-933. *
133. Radmacher M. Measuring the elastic properties of biological samples with the AFM. IEEE Eng. Med Biol. 1997;47-57.
134. Radmacher M. Single molecules feel the force. Phys. World. 1999;33-37.
135. Rief M., Clausen-Schaumann H., Gaub H.E. Sequence-dependent mechanics of single DNA molecules. Nature Struct. Biol. 6:1999;346-349.
136. Rief M., Fernandez J.M., Gaub H.E. Elastically coupled two-level systems as a model for biopolymer extensibility. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81:1998;4764-4767.
137. Rief M., Gautel M., Oesterhelt F., Fernandez J.M., Gaub H.E. Reversible unfolding of individual titin immunoglobulin domains by AFM. Science. 276:1997;1109-1112.
138. Rief M., Gautel M., Schemmel A., Gaub H.E. The mechanical stability of immunoglobulin and fibronectin III domains in the muscle protein titin measured by atomic force microscopy. Biophys. J. 75:1998;3008-3014.
139. Rief M., Oesterhelt F., Heymann B., Gaub H.E. Single molecule force spectroscopy on polysaccharides by atomic force microscopy. Science. 275:1997;1295-1297.
140. Rief M., Pascual J., Saraste M., Gaub H.E. Single molecular force spectroscopy of spectrin repeats: Low unfolding forces in helix bundles. J. Mol. Biol. 286:1999;553-561.
141. Sackmann E. Biological membranes architecture and function. Lipowsky R., Sackmann E. Handbook of Biological Physics, vol. 1A. Structure and Dynamics of Membranes. 1995;1-65 North-Holland, Amsterdam, NL.
142. Savage M.D., Mattson G., Desai S., Nielander G.W., Morgensen S., Conklin E.J. Avidin-Biotin Chemistry: a handbook. 1992;Pierce Chemical Company, Rockford, USA.
143. Schmid E.L., Keller T.A., Dienes Z., Vogel H. Reversible oriented surface immobilization of functional proteins on oxide surfaces. Anal. Chem. 69:1997;1979-1985.
144. Schmitt L., Dietrich C., Tampé R. Synthesis and characterization of chelator-lipids for reversible immobilization of engineered proteins at self-assembled lipid interfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116:1994;8485-8491.
145. Seifert U. Rupture of multiple parallel molecular bonds under dynamic loading. Phys. Rev. Lett. 84:2000;2750-2753.
146. Senden T.J., di Meglio J.-M., Auroy P. Anomalous adhesion in adsorbed polymer layers. Eur. Phys. J. B. 3:1998;211-216.
147. Shao J.-Y., Hochmuth R.M. Micropipette suction for measuring piconewton forces of adhesion and tether formation from neutrophil membranes. Biophys. J. 71:1996;2892-2901.
148. 2 integrins, and CD45 to neutrophil cytoskeleton and membrane Biophys. J. 77:1999;587-596.
149. Sheetz (Ed.) M.P. Laser Tweezers in Cell Biology, Methods In Cell Biology, Vol. 55. 1998;Academic Press, San Diego, USA.
150. Shriver-Lake L.C., Donner B., Edelstein R., Breslin K., Bhatia S.K., Ligler F.S. Antibody immobilization using heterobifunctional crosslinkers. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 12:1997;1101-1106.
151. Simmons R.M., Finer J.T., Chu S., Spudich J.A. Quantitative measurements of force and displacement using an optical trap. Biophys. J. 70:1996;1813-1822.
152. D.A. Simson, M. Strigl, M. Hohenadl, R. Merkel, Statistical breakage of single protein A-IgG bonds reveals crossover from spontaneous to force-induced bond dissociation, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83 (1999) 652-655. *
153. Simson D.A., Ziemann F., Strigl M., Merkel R. Micropipet-based pico force transducer: in depth analysis and experimental verification. Biophys. J. 74:1998;2080-2088.
154. Smith M.J., Berg E.L., Lawrence M.B. A direct comparison of selectin-mediated transient, adhesive events using high temporal resolution. Biophys. J. 77:1999;3371-3383.
155. Smith S.B., Cui Y., Bustamante C. Overstretching B-DNA: the elastic response of individual double-stranded and single-stranded DNA molecules. Science. 271:1996;795-799.
156. S.B. Smith, L. Finzi, C. Bustamante, Direct mechanical measurements of the elasticity of single DNA molecules by using magnetic beads, Science 258 (1992) 1122-1126. *
157. Springer T.A. Traffic signals on endothelium for lymphocyte recirculation and leukocyte emigration. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 57:1995;827-872.
158. Strick T.R., Allemand J.-F., Bensimon D., Bensimon A., Croquette V. The elasticity of a single supercoiled DNA molecule. Science. 271:1996;1835-1837.
159. Strick T.R., Allemand J.-F., Bensimon D., Croquette V. Behavior of supercoiled DNA. Biophys. J. 74:1998;2016-2028.
160. Strick T.R., Croquette V., Bensimon D. Homologous pairing in stretched supercoiled DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:1998;10579-10583.
161. Strigl M., Simson D.A., Kacher C.M., Merkel R. Force-induced dissociation of single protein A-IgG bonds. Langmuir. 15:1999;7316-7324.
162. Strunz T., Orszolan K., Schäfer R., Güntherodt H.-J. Dynamic force spectroscopy on single DNA molecules. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 96:1999;11277-11282.
163. Stryer L. Biochemistry. 1995;Freeman, New York, USA.
164. Svoboda K., Block S.M. Biological applications of optical forces. Ann. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 23:1994;247-285.
165. Svoboda K., Block S.M. Force and velocity measured for single kinesin molecules. Cell. 77:1994;773-784.
166. Svoboda K., Schmidt C.F., Schnapp B.J., Block S.M. Direct observation of kinesin stepping by optical trapping interferometry. Nature. 365:1993;721-727.
167. D.F.J. Tees, O. Coenen, H.L. Goldsmith, Interaction forces between red cells agglutinated by antibody. IV. Time and force dependence of break-up, Biophys. J. 65 (1993) 1318-1334. *
168. Tees D.F.J., Goldsmith H.L. Kinetics and locus of failure of receptor-ligand-mediated adhesion between latex spheres. I. Protein-carbohydrate bond. Biophys. J. 71:1996;1102-1114.
169. Tha S.P., Goldsmith H.L. Interaction forces between red cells agglutinated by antibody. I. Theoretical. Biophys. J. 50:1986;1109-1116.
170. Tha S.P., Goldsmith H.L. Interaction forces between red cells agglutinated by antibody. III. Micromanipulation. Biophys. J. 53:1988;677-687.
171. Tha S.P., Shuster J., Goldsmith H.L. Interaction forces between red cells agglutinated by antibody. II. Measurement of hydrodynamic force of breakup. Biophys. J. 50:1986;1117-1126.
172. Tissot O., Pierres A., Foa C., Delaage M., Bongrand P. Motion of cells sedimenting on a solid surface in a laminar shear flow. Biophys. J. 61:1992;204-215.
173. L. Tskhovrebova, J. Trinick, J.A. Sleep, R.M. Simmons, Elasticity and unfolding of single molecules of the giant muscle protein titin, Nature 387 (1997) 308-312. *
174. Ulman A. An Introduction to Ultrathin Organic Films: from Langmuir-Blodgett to Self-Assembly. 1991;Academic Press, San Diego, USA.
175. Vologodskii A.V., Cozzarelli N.R. Conformational and thermodynamic properties of supercoiled DNA. Ann. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 23:1994;609-643.
176. Wagner P., Kernen P., Hegner M., Ungewickell E., Semenza G. Covalent anchoring of proteins onto gold-directed NHS-terminated self-assembled monolayers in aqueous buffers: SFM images of clathrin cages and triskelia. FEBS Lett. 356:1994;267-271.
177. Wang M.D., Yin H., Landick R., Gelles J., Block S.M. Stretching DNA with optical tweezers. Biophys. J. 72:1997;1335-1346.
178. Weisenhorn A.L., Maivald P., Butt H.-J., Hansma P.K. Measuring adhesion, attraction, and repulsion between surfaces in liquids with an atomic-force microscope. Phys. Rev. B. 45:1992;11226-11232.
179. Williams P.M., Moore A., Stevens M.M., Allen S., Davies M.C., Roberts C.J., Tendler S.J.B. On the dynamic behaviour of the forced dissociation of ligand-receptor pairs. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Transactions. 2:2000;5-8.
180. Zhu C. Kinetics and mechanics of cell adhesion. J. Biomech. 33:2000;23-33.