Bioethics and human rights: A historical perspective

Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 241-252

  Baker, Robert ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ASIA; BIOETHICS; BIOETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS; CRIME; EUROPE; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; HUMAN RIGHTS; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; MEDICAL ETHICS; NUREMBERG CODE; POLITICAL SYSTEM; SOCIAL JUSTICE; UNITED NATIONS; UNITED STATES; UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS;

BIOETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS; NUREMBERG CODE; UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS;

ASIA; BIOETHICS; EUROPE; HELSINKI DECLARATION; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOLOCAUST; HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION; HUMAN RIGHTS; HUMANS; INTERNATIONALITY; POLITICAL SYSTEMS; SOCIAL JUSTICE; UNITED NATIONS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0035354564     PISSN: 09631801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0963180101003048     Document Type: Review

References (46)

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2. Rorty R. Human rights, rationality, and sentimentality. In: Shute S, Hurley S, eds. On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures. New York: Basic Books, 1993:117.
3. French Assembly. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, 1789. In: Waldron J, ed. Nonsense on Stilts: Bentham, Burke, and Marx on the Rights of Man. London: Methuen, 1987:26.
4. Arendt H. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Meridian Books, 1958:292.
5. Schwelb E. Human Rights and the International Community: The Roots and Growth of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948-1963. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1964:24.
6. Morsink J. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting, and Intent. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.
7. Taylor C. Conditions of an unforced consensus on human rights. In: Bauer JR, Bell DA. eds. The East Asian Challenge for Human Rights. London/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999:126.
8. Grodin M. The historical origins of the Nuremberg Code. In: Annas GA, Grodin M, eds. The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1992:135-6.
9. Katz J. Experimentation with Human Beings. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972:300.
10. The AMA adopted this principle, but only in 1946; that is, only at Ivy's insistence, and only after the Nazi researchers were indicted.
11. Although this point was not raised at the trial, Gypsies, Jews, and homosexuals had been stripped of German citizenship and were considered Untermenschen, subhumans, and thus were not protected by regulations covering Menschen, humans. For the 1931 regulations in English and German, see: Sass HM. Reichrundschreiben 1931: Pre-Nuremberg German regulations concerning new therapy and human experimentation. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 1983;8:104-9.
12. Alexander L. Ethics of human experimentation. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa 1976;1:40-6. See also: Grodin M. The historical origins of the Nuremberg Code. In: Annas GA, Grodin M, eds. The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1992:134-5.
13. Alexander L. Ethics of human experimentation. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa 1976;1:40-6. See also: Grodin M. The historical origins of the Nuremberg Code. In: Annas GA, Grodin M, eds. The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1992:134-5.
14. Ivy AC. Report on war crimes of a medical nature committed in Germany and elsewhere on German nationals and the nationals of occupied countries by the Nazi regime during World War II. Document JC 9218, American Medical Association Archives, 1946:9.
15. American Medical Association. Principles of medical ethics (1903). In: Baker R, Caplan A, Emanuel E, Latham S, eds. The American Medical Ethics Revolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1999.
16. Ivy AC. Report on war crimes of a medical nature committed in Germany and elsewhere on German nationals and the nationals of occupied countries by the Nazi regime during World War II. Document JC 9218, American Medical Association Archives, 1946:11.
17. Ivy AC. Report on war crimes of a medical nature committed in Germany and elsewhere on German nationals and the nationals of occupied countries by the Nazi regime during World War II. Doc. JC 9218, American Medical Association Archives, 1946:13-4.
18. Katz J. Experimentation with Human Beings. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972:305, emphasis added.
19. Rothman D. Strangers at the Bedside. New York: Basic Books, 1991:62-3.
20. Beecher H. Beecher's Code: Some guiding principles for clinical investigation. In: Beecher H, ed. Research and the Individual: Human Studies. Boston: Little, Brown, 1966:289-92.
21. Beecher H, ed. Research and the Individual: Human Studies. Boston: Little, Brown, 1966:289-92.
22. Ignatieff M. Human rights: the midlife crisis. The New York Review of Books 1999;46:59.
23. Curran WJ. Governmental regulation of the use of human subjects in medical research: the approach of two federal agencies. Daedalus 1969;92:576-8.
24. Beecher H. Ethics and clinical research. New England Journal of Medicine 1966;274:1354-60.
25. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Belmont Report. Washington D.C., 1978, DHEW Pub. no. OS 78-0014.
26. For a detailed critique of the convergence justification and replies see: Baker R. Multiculturalism, postmodernism, and the bankruptcy of fundamentalism. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:210-31; Baker R. A theory of international bioethics. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:233-74; Baker R. Negotiating international bioethics: a response to Tom Beauchamp and Ruth Macklin. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55. Beauchamp TL. The mettle of moral fundamentalism: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55; Macklin R. A defense of fundamental principles and human rights: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:403-22.
27. For a detailed critique of the convergence justification and replies see: Baker R. Multiculturalism, postmodernism, and the bankruptcy of fundamentalism. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:210-31; Baker R. A theory of international bioethics. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:233-74; Baker R. Negotiating international bioethics: a response to Tom Beauchamp and Ruth Macklin. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55. Beauchamp TL. The mettle of moral fundamentalism: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55; Macklin R. A defense of fundamental principles and human rights: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:403-22.
28. For a detailed critique of the convergence justification and replies see: Baker R. Multiculturalism, postmodernism, and the bankruptcy of fundamentalism. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:210-31; Baker R. A theory of international bioethics. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:233-74; Baker R. Negotiating international bioethics: a response to Tom Beauchamp and Ruth Macklin. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55. Beauchamp TL. The mettle of moral fundamentalism: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55; Macklin R. A defense of fundamental principles and human rights: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:403-22.
29. For a detailed critique of the convergence justification and replies see: Baker R. Multiculturalism, postmodernism, and the bankruptcy of fundamentalism. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:210-31; Baker R. A theory of international bioethics. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:233-74; Baker R. Negotiating international bioethics: a response to Tom Beauchamp and Ruth Macklin. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55. Beauchamp TL. The mettle of moral fundamentalism: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55; Macklin R. A defense of fundamental principles and human rights: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:403-22.
30. For a detailed critique of the convergence justification and replies see: Baker R. Multiculturalism, postmodernism, and the bankruptcy of fundamentalism. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:210-31; Baker R. A theory of international bioethics. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:233-74; Baker R. Negotiating international bioethics: a response to Tom Beauchamp and Ruth Macklin. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55. Beauchamp TL. The mettle of moral fundamentalism: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:423-55; Macklin R. A defense of fundamental principles and human rights: a reply to Robert Baker. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1998;8:403-22.
31. Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1979, 1983, 1989, 1994.
32. Ironically, Beauchamp and Childress tend to avoid the term "bioethics." The term was coined in the early 1970s perhaps by Sargent Shriver, or by André Hellegers, or by Van Rensselaer Potter. It achieved canonical status when the Library of Congress entered it as a subject heading, citing as its authority an article, "Bioethics as a Discipline," published by Daniel Callahan in the first volume of the Hastings Center Report-Callahan can thus also be credited with coining the term. See Jonsen AR. The Birth of Bioethics. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:26-7; and Reich WT. The word "bioethics": the struggle for its earliest meanings. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1994;4:319-36; 1995;5:19-34.
33. Ironically, Beauchamp and Childress tend to avoid the term "bioethics." The term was coined in the early 1970s perhaps by Sargent Shriver, or by André Hellegers, or by Van Rensselaer Potter. It achieved canonical status when the Library of Congress entered it as a subject heading, citing as its authority an article, "Bioethics as a Discipline," published by Daniel Callahan in the first volume of the Hastings Center Report-Callahan can thus also be credited with coining the term. See Jonsen AR. The Birth of Bioethics. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:26-7; and Reich WT. The word "bioethics": the struggle for its earliest meanings. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1994;4:319-36; 1995;5:19-34.
34. Ironically, Beauchamp and Childress tend to avoid the term "bioethics." The term was coined in the early 1970s perhaps by Sargent Shriver, or by André Hellegers, or by Van Rensselaer Potter. It achieved canonical status when the Library of Congress entered it as a subject heading, citing as its authority an article, "Bioethics as a Discipline," published by Daniel Callahan in the first volume of the Hastings Center Report-Callahan can thus also be credited with coining the term. See Jonsen AR. The Birth of Bioethics. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:26-7; and Reich WT. The word "bioethics": the struggle for its earliest meanings. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1994;4:319-36; 1995;5:19-34.
35. "According to this diagram," Beauchamp and Childress explain, "judgments about what ought to be done in particular situations are justified by moral rules, which in turn are grounded in principles and ultimately ethical theories." Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1979:5; 1983:6.
36. "According to this diagram," Beauchamp and Childress explain, "judgments about what ought to be done in particular situations are justified by moral rules, which in turn are grounded in principles and ultimately ethical theories." Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1979:5; 1983:6.
37. Wildt A. Solidarity: its history and contemporary definition. In: Bayertz K, ed. Solidarity. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1999:209-22.
38. Bayertz K, ed. Solidarity. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1999.
39. Rawls J. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971:146-8.
40. Rawls J. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971:105-6.
41. Dardé VM. Fraternity and justice. In: Bayertz K, ed. Solidarity. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1999:81-100.
42. See note 32, Rawls 1971:105-6.
43. I appreciate that some philosophers, for example, Norman Daniels, believe that they can derive a solidarity type system of healthcare from the Rawlsean concept of fair equality of opportunity. It follows from my analysis that I am profoundly skeptical about such projects.
44. Fan R. Self-determination versus family determination: two inconsistent principles of autonomy. Bioethics 1997;11:309-22.
45. Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. London/New York: Oxford University Press, 1994:244-5.
46. Transnational medical ethics has already done this: thus, the Preamble to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with Regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, adopted by Council of Europe in 1997, the term "rights" or "human rights" appears eight times - no mention is made of "principles." Convention for Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with Regard to the Application of Biology and Biomedicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1996;7:277-90.