What makes the Indian tick? The influence of social sciences on Canada's Indian policy, 1947-1964

Histoire Sociale

Volumn 34, Issue 67, 2001, Pages 133-167

  Shewell, Hugh ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035343478     PISSN: 00182257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (143)

1. Canada, Indian Affairs Branch, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, The Indian>In
2. John L. Tobias "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation: An Outline History of Canada's Indian Policy" The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, vol. 6, no. 2 (1976), pp. 13-30, reprinted in A. L. Getty and Antoine S. Lussier, eds., As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows: A Reader in Canadian Native Studies, Nakoda Institute Occasional Paper No. 1 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), pp. 43-45.
3. John L. Tobias "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation: An Outline History of Canada's Indian Policy" The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, vol. 6, no. 2 (1976), pp. 13-30, reprinted in A. L. Getty and Antoine S. Lussier, eds., As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows: A Reader in Canadian Native Studies, Nakoda Institute Occasional Paper No. 1 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), pp. 43-45.
4. Marlene Shore, The Science of Social Redemption: McGill, the Chicago School, and the Origins of Social Research in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), p. 27.
5. Doug Owram, The Government Generation: Canadian Intellectuals and the State, 1900-1945 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986), pp. 163-164.
6. Ibid., p. 166.
7. Ibid., especially chap. 8 through 11.
8. See Hugh Shewell, "Jules Sioui and Indian Political Radicadism in Canada, 1943-1944", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 34, no. 3 (Autumn 1999), pp. 224-234.
9. Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation", p. 51. Amid Canada's postwar affluence the squalid, third-world conditions of most First Nations communities appalled a great many Canadians. During the 1946-1948 committee hearings, Indian communities were frequently referred to and reported in the newspapers as slums. The hearings and the recommendations arising from them appeased this moral outcry for about 10 years. However, by the late 1950s Indians' social and economic conditions remained much the same as before, and their relative legal position within Canada was also unchanged. This gave rise to further public concern and to international critism of Canada for its treatment of native peoples. Such criticism, together with problems related to land settlements, prompted Prime Minister John Diefenbaker to appoint another Joint Parliamentary Committee on Indian Affairs in 1959.
10. Bob Mullaly, Structural Social Work: Ideology, Theory, and Practice, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 119-121. See, too, Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), pp. 11-12.
11. Bob Mullaly, Structural Social Work: Ideology, Theory, and Practice, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 119-121. See, too, Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), pp. 11-12.
12. Jessa Chupik-Hall, " 'Good Families Do Not Just Happen': Indigenous People and Child Welfare Services in Canada and Australia, 1950-1965" (MA thesis, Peterborough, Trent University, 2001), p. 45.
13. Ken Moffatt, A Poetics of Social Work: Personal Agency and Social Transformation in Canada, 1920-1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p. 84.
14. Ibid., pp. 84-85.
15. Chunik-Hall, " 'Good Families' ", pp. 33-34. Chupik-Hall observes that social adjustment for First Nations peoples meant their adoption of non-indigenous cultural patterns: "This was the all too familiar theme in post-Second World War social science discourse on Aboriginal people."
16. John Leonard Taylor, Canadian Indian Policy During the Inter-war Years, 1918-1939 (Ottawa: Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1983), pp. 203-205.
17. H. B. Hawthorn, "The Politics of Indian Affairs" in Hawthorn, ed., A Survey of Contemporary Indians of Canada (Ottawa: The Queen's Printer, 1966), part 1, chap. 17, abridged and reprinted in Getty and Lussier, eds., As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows, pp. 172-173. The Hawthorn study represents one of the most obvious examples of the influence of social sciences on the Indian Affairs branch. However, it falls outside th e time parameters of this research and is not included here per se. For an excellent discussion of the influence of the study on Indian Affairs policy, see Sally M. Weaver, "The Hawthorn Report: Its Use in the Making of Canadian Indian Policy" in Noel Dyck and James B. Waldram, eds., Anthropology, Public Policy, and Native Peoples in Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
18. H. B. Hawthorn, "The Politics of Indian Affairs" in Hawthorn, ed., A Survey of Contemporary Indians of Canada (Ottawa: The Queen's Printer, 1966), part 1, chap. 17, abridged and reprinted in Getty and Lussier, eds., As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows, pp. 172-173. The Hawthorn study represents one of the most obvious examples of the influence of social sciences on the Indian Affairs branch. However, it falls outside th e time parameters of this research and is not included here per se. For an excellent discussion of the influence of the study on Indian Affairs policy, see Sally M. Weaver, "The Hawthorn Report: Its Use in the Making of Canadian Indian Policy" in Noel Dyck and James B. Waldram, eds., Anthropology, Public Policy, and Native Peoples in Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
19. H. B. Hawthorn, "The Politics of Indian Affairs" in Hawthorn, ed., A Survey of Contemporary Indians of Canada (Ottawa: The Queen's Printer, 1966), part 1, chap. 17, abridged and reprinted in Getty and Lussier, eds., As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows, pp. 172-173. The Hawthorn study represents one of the most obvious examples of the influence of social sciences on the Indian Affairs branch. However, it falls outside th e time parameters of this research and is not included here per se. For an excellent discussion of the influence of the study on Indian Affairs policy, see Sally M. Weaver, "The Hawthorn Report: Its Use in the Making of Canadian Indian Policy" in Noel Dyck and James B. Waldram, eds., Anthropology, Public Policy, and Native Peoples in Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993).
20. Hugh Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare in the Canadian Liberal State: An Historical Case Study in Social Plicy, 1873-1965" (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto, 1995); see espacially pp. 495-542.
21. Jules Harmand, quoted in Philip D. Curtin, ed., Imperialism (New York: Walker, 1971), pp. 294-295, cited in Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alferd A. Knopf, 1993), p. 17.
22. Jules Harmand, quoted in Philip D. Curtin, ed., Imperialism (New York: Walker, 1971), pp. 294-295, cited in Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alferd A. Knopf, 1993), p. 17.
23. National Archives of Canada (hereafter NAC), RG 10, Red Series, vol. 1995, file 6886, "Memorandum Relative To the Policy of the Government of the Dominion in their administration of Indian Affairs", Ottawa, August 22, 1876, draft correspondence from Deputy Superintendent General Lawrence Vankoughnet to W. P. Ross, Editor, The Indian Journal, Muskogee Indian Territory, U.S.A.
24. Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare", pp. 157-158, 163-164.
25. Taylor, Canadian Indian Policy, p. 201.
26. Noel Dyck, What is the Indian "Problem": Tutelage and Resistance in Canadian Indian Administration, Social and Economic Studies No. 46 (St. John's: lnstitute of Social and Economic Research, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1991), pp. 24, 25.
27. J. E. Chamberrlin, The Harrowing of Eden: White Attitudes Toward North Amerk an Natives (Toronto: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1975), p. 55.
28. Ibid., pp. 162-163. McKenney's remarks are taken from a report delivered by him to the United States Senate, December 27, 1821. Originally cited in Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), p. 153.
29. Ibid., pp. 162-163. McKenney's remarks are taken from a report delivered by him to the United States Senate, December 27, 1821. Originally cited in Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), p. 153.
30. See, for example, Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples From Earliest Times (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), pp. 320-321; Peter Kulchyski, "Anthropology in the Service of the State: Diamond Jenness and Canadian Indian Policy", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 28, no. 2 (Summer 1993), pp. 24-25; J. R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), pp. 189-207, 211-220; E. Brian Titley, A Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986); Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation", pp. 45-49.
31. See, for example, Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples From Earliest Times (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), pp. 320-321; Peter Kulchyski, "Anthropology in the Service of the State: Diamond Jenness and Canadian Indian Policy", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 28, no. 2 (Summer 1993), pp. 24-25; J. R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), pp. 189-207, 211-220; E. Brian Titley, A Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986); Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation", pp. 45-49.
32. See, for example, Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples From Earliest Times (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), pp. 320-321; Peter Kulchyski, "Anthropology in the Service of the State: Diamond Jenness and Canadian Indian Policy", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 28, no. 2 (Summer 1993), pp. 24-25; J. R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), pp. 189-207, 211-220; E. Brian Titley, A Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986); Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation", pp. 45-49.
33. See, for example, Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples From Earliest Times (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), pp. 320-321; Peter Kulchyski, "Anthropology in the Service of the State: Diamond Jenness and Canadian Indian Policy", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 28, no. 2 (Summer 1993), pp. 24-25; J. R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), pp. 189-207, 211-220; E. Brian Titley, A Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986); Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation", pp. 45-49.
34. See, for example, Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples From Earliest Times (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), pp. 320-321; Peter Kulchyski, "Anthropology in the Service of the State: Diamond Jenness and Canadian Indian Policy", Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 28, no. 2 (Summer 1993), pp. 24-25; J. R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), pp. 189-207, 211-220; E. Brian Titley, A Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986); Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation", pp. 45-49.
35. Tilley, A Narrow Vision, p. 93.
36. Ibid., pp. 75-77.
37. Ibid., p. 93.
38. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, pp. 197-198; Titley, A Narrow Vision, pp. 84-88.
39. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, pp. 197-198; Titley, A Narrow Vision, pp. 84-88.
40. Titley, A Narrow Vision, p. 93.
41. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, p. 198.
42. See, for example, Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990).
43. Dickason, Canada's, First Nations, pp. 326-328.
44. Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare", pp. 740-743.
45. Dickason, Canada's First Nations, p. 328.
46. Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare", p. 325. This represents the per capita expenditure in 1936. For an averaged amount, see p. 36, n. 99.
47. Dickson, Canada's First Nations, pp. 327-328. Shewell also suggests that high rates of welfare dependency can he partly attributed to First Nations' resistance to federal policies intended to subjugate them and integrate them into Canadian society. See "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare", pp. 2-4.
48. Dickson, Canada's First Nations, pp. 327-328. Shewell also suggests that high rates of welfare dependency can he partly attributed to First Nations' resistance to federal policies intended to subjugate them and integrate them into Canadian society. See "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare", pp. 2-4.
49. Dickason, Canada's First Nations p. 328; Titley, A Narrow Vision, pp. 102-109.
50. Dickason, Canada's First Nations p. 328; Titley, A Narrow Vision, pp. 102-109.
51. Shewell, "Jules Sioui", pp. 231-233.
52. Edward Said makes a similar point in discussing the role of social science in interpreting the Middle East to the West, especially, he states, during the postwar period. As well, Eric Wolf highlights the roles of sociology and anthropology in developing worlds of contrast between aboriginal and European societies and is particularly critical of the American use of social sciences in defining the problems of the "third" or "underdeveloped" world. See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978; Vintage Books, 1979), pp. 290-291; Eric R. Wolf, "Introduction" in Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).
53. Edward Said makes a similar point in discussing the role of social science in interpreting the Middle East to the West, especially, he states, during the postwar period. As well, Eric Wolf highlights the roles of sociology and anthropology in developing worlds of contrast between aboriginal and European societies and is particularly critical of the American use of social sciences in defining the problems of the "third" or "underdeveloped" world. See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978; Vintage Books, 1979), pp. 290-291; Eric R. Wolf, "Introduction" in Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).
54. Dr. Frederick Tisdall, "Report of the Nutritional Expeditionary Committee" cited in John J. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", The Dalhousie Review, vol. 30, no. 4 (1951), pp. 378-379, in NAC, RG-10, CR Series, vol. 8618, File 1/1-15-1, "Psychological and Sociological Studies of Indians, October 1947 to January 1964".
55. Dr. Frederick Tisdall, "Report of the Nutritional Expeditionary Committee" cited in John J. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", The Dalhousie Review, vol. 30, no. 4 (1951), pp. 378-379, in NAC, RG-10, CR Series, vol. 8618, File 1/1-15-1, "Psychological and Sociological Studies of Indians, October 1947 to January 1964".
56. Dr. Frederick Tisdall, "Report of the Nutritional Expeditionary Committee" cited in John J. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", The Dalhousie Review, vol. 30, no. 4 (1951), pp. 378-379, in NAC, RG-10, CR Series, vol. 8618, File 1/1-15-1, "Psychological and Sociological Studies of Indians, October 1947 to January 1964".
57. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Buy Survey", pp. 378-379.
58. Ibid., p. 378.
59. Ibid.
60. These studies were more in line with classical anthropology and represented the idea of capturing, before it was too late, the social and cultural characteristics of "vanishing peoples". Jenness, who was also a federal civil servant, was to a large extent an exception to this in that be began to apply his work to a plan to "liquidaite" Canada's Indians within a 25-year time frame. See Kulchyski, "Anthropology in the Service of the State", pp. 28-30, 33-38; Shewell, "Jules Sioui", pp. 7-8.
61. These studies were more in line with classical anthropology and represented the idea of capturing, before it was too late, the social and cultural characteristics of "vanishing peoples". Jenness, who was also a federal civil servant, was to a large extent an exception to this in that be began to apply his work to a plan to "liquidaite" Canada's Indians within a 25-year time frame. See Kulchyski, "Anthropology in the Service of the State", pp. 28-30, 33-38; Shewell, "Jules Sioui", pp. 7-8.
62. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, correspondence from Forrest E. LaViolette to Herbert Marshall, October 26, 1947.
63. During the war and in the immediate postwar period, the National Defence Research Board Research Board employed psychologists principally to study the effects of war on member of the armed forces. With the end of the war, the board sought other subjects for psychological study.
64. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, correspondence form R. A. Hoey to Dr. Hugh Keenleyside, December 15, 1947.
65. Ken S. Coates, Best Left as Indians: Native-White Relations in the Yukon Territory, 1840-1973 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991); Miller, Skyscarpers Hide the Heavens, pp. 222-223; Desmond Morton, A Short History of Canada (Edmonton: Hurting Publishers, 1983), pp. 215-216; Paul Phillips and Stephen Watson, "From Mobilization to Continentalism: The Canadian Economy in the Post-Depression Period" in Michael S. Cross and Gregory S. Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, Readings in Canadian Social History No.5 (Toroto: McClelland and Stewart, 1984), pp. 32-33, 38-43; David Wolfe, "The Rise and Demise of the Keynesian Era in Canada: Econommic Policy, 1930-1982" in Cross and Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, p. 60.
66. Ken S. Coates, Best Left as Indians: Native-White Relations in the Yukon Territory, 1840-1973 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991); Miller, Skyscarpers Hide the Heavens, pp. 222-223; Desmond Morton, A Short History of Canada (Edmonton: Hurting Publishers, 1983), pp. 215-216; Paul Phillips and Stephen Watson, "From Mobilization to Continentalism: The Canadian Economy in the Post-Depression Period" in Michael S. Cross and Gregory S. Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, Readings in Canadian Social History No.5 (Toroto: McClelland and Stewart, 1984), pp. 32-33, 38-43; David Wolfe, "The Rise and Demise of the Keynesian Era in Canada: Econommic Policy, 1930-1982" in Cross and Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, p. 60.
67. Ken S. Coates, Best Left as Indians: Native-White Relations in the Yukon Territory, 1840-1973 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991); Miller, Skyscarpers Hide the Heavens, pp. 222-223; Desmond Morton, A Short History of Canada (Edmonton: Hurting Publishers, 1983), pp. 215-216; Paul Phillips and Stephen Watson, "From Mobilization to Continentalism: The Canadian Economy in the Post-Depression Period" in Michael S. Cross and Gregory S. Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, Readings in Canadian Social History No.5 (Toroto: McClelland and Stewart, 1984), pp. 32-33, 38-43; David Wolfe, "The Rise and Demise of the Keynesian Era in Canada: Econommic Policy, 1930-1982" in Cross and Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, p. 60.
68. Ken S. Coates, Best Left as Indians: Native-White Relations in the Yukon Territory, 1840-1973 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991); Miller, Skyscarpers Hide the Heavens, pp. 222-223; Desmond Morton, A Short History of Canada (Edmonton: Hurting Publishers, 1983), pp. 215-216; Paul Phillips and Stephen Watson, "From Mobilization to Continentalism: The Canadian Economy in the Post-Depression Period" in Michael S. Cross and Gregory S. Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, Readings in Canadian Social History No.5 (Toroto: McClelland and Stewart, 1984), pp. 32-33, 38-43; David Wolfe, "The Rise and Demise of the Keynesian Era in Canada: Econommic Policy, 1930-1982" in Cross and Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, p. 60.
69. Ken S. Coates, Best Left as Indians: Native-White Relations in the Yukon Territory, 1840-1973 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991); Miller, Skyscarpers Hide the Heavens, pp. 222-223; Desmond Morton, A Short History of Canada (Edmonton: Hurting Publishers, 1983), pp. 215-216; Paul Phillips and Stephen Watson, "From Mobilization to Continentalism: The Canadian Economy in the Post-Depression Period" in Michael S. Cross and Gregory S. Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, Readings in Canadian Social History No.5 (Toroto: McClelland and Stewart, 1984), pp. 32-33, 38-43; David Wolfe, "The Rise and Demise of the Keynesian Era in Canada: Econommic Policy, 1930-1982" in Cross and Kealey, eds., Modern Canada, 1930-1980's, p. 60.
70. By the mid-point of the Second World War Canadians had become more aware of First Nations peoples and the injustices they suffered. A growing sentiment prevailed to right these injustices and to "give the Indian a square deal". Much of this sentiment arose because of increased contact Canadians had with Indians serving in the armed forces and because Canadians were newly sensing rights of citizenship that should be extended to all contributing members of society. The state sought to legitimize Indian assimilation policy by appealing to these sentiments and used public hearing in the Joint Parliamentary Committee on the Indian Act (1946-1948) as one vehicle to do so.
71. Mel Watkins provides an excellent analysis of the process affecting in the north. Drawing on the work Peter Elias, Watkins shows how the process failed, either because First Nations resisted the incursion of the dominant economy or because they were marginalized and turned into a source of cheap, menial laabour. As Hoey's memorandum casually implied, Indians were never to benefit from the surplus of economic exploitation. Rather, they were to be carefully managed as humanely as possible while the surplus dtrained south. See Mel Watkins, "From Underdevelopment to Development" in Watkins, ed., Dene Nation: The Colony Within (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, University League for Social Reform, 1977), pp. 91-94; Peter Douglas Elias, "Metropolis and Hinterland in Nothern Manitoba" (Winnipeg, 1975), quoted in Watkins, "From Underdevrelopment", p. 93.
72. Mel Watkins provides an excellent analysis of the process affecting in the north. Drawing on the work Peter Elias, Watkins shows how the process failed, either because First Nations resisted the incursion of the dominant economy or because they were marginalized and turned into a source of cheap, menial laabour. As Hoey's memorandum casually implied, Indians were never to benefit from the surplus of economic exploitation. Rather, they were to be carefully managed as humanely as possible while the surplus dtrained south. See Mel Watkins, "From Underdevelopment to Development" in Watkins, ed., Dene Nation: The Colony Within (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, University League for Social Reform, 1977), pp. 91-94; Peter Douglas Elias, "Metropolis and Hinterland in Nothern Manitoba" (Winnipeg, 1975), quoted in Watkins, "From Underdevrelopment", p. 93.
73. Mel Watkins provides an excellent analysis of the process affecting in the north. Drawing on the work Peter Elias, Watkins shows how the process failed, either because First Nations resisted the incursion of the dominant economy or because they were marginalized and turned into a source of cheap, menial laabour. As Hoey's memorandum casually implied, Indians were never to benefit from the surplus of economic exploitation. Rather, they were to be carefully managed as humanely as possible while the surplus dtrained south. See Mel Watkins, "From Underdevelopment to Development" in Watkins, ed., Dene Nation: The Colony Within (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, University League for Social Reform, 1977), pp. 91-94; Peter Douglas Elias, "Metropolis and Hinterland in Nothern Manitoba" (Winnipeg, 1975), quoted in Watkins, "From Underdevrelopment", p. 93.
74. C. B. Macpherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962; Oxford University Press Paperback 1964).
75. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, correspondence from C. J. Mackenzie to Keenleyside, January 23, 1948.
76. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, correspondence from Giff Swartman to the Indian Affairs Branch, September 10, 1948. In his correspondence Swartman referred to Moore's article in the CMA Journal but gave no dale. However, the second article, which had just appeared, was clearly an early report on the James Bay Survey initiated in 1947. See R. P. Vivian, M.D., Charles McMillan, M.D., E. Chant Rohertson, M.D., W. H. Sebrell, M.D., F. F. Tisdall, M.D., and W. G. McIntosh, D.D.S., "The Nutrition and Health of the James Bay Indian", Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol. 59 (1948), pp. 505-518.
77. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, correspondence from Giff Swartman to the Indian Affairs Branch, September 10, 1948. In his correspondence Swartman referred to Moore's article in the CMA Journal but gave no dale. However, the second article, which had just appeared, was clearly an early report on the James Bay Survey initiated in 1947. See R. P. Vivian, M.D., Charles McMillan, M.D., E. Chant Rohertson, M.D., W. H. Sebrell, M.D., F. F. Tisdall, M.D., and W. G. McIntosh, D.D.S., "The Nutrition and Health of the James Bay Indian", Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol. 59 (1948), pp. 505-518.
78. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, correspondence from Bartlett to Swartman quoted by Swartman in his correspondence to branch headquarters.
79. Ibid.
80. Canada, Child and Family Services Task Force, Indian Child and Family Services in Canada: Final Report (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1987), pp. 3-4; Patrick Johnston, Native Children and the Child Welfare System (Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development, 1983); Brian harf, Toward First Nation Control of Child Welfare: A Review of Emerging Developments in B.C. (Victoria: University of Victoria, 1987), pp. 9-10.
81. Canada, Child and Family Services Task Force, Indian Child and Family Services in Canada: Final Report (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1987), pp. 3-4; Patrick Johnston, Native Children and the Child Welfare System (Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development, 1983); Brian harf, Toward First Nation Control of Child Welfare: A Review of Emerging Developments in B.C. (Victoria: University of Victoria, 1987), pp. 9-10.
82. Canada, Child and Family Services Task Force, Indian Child and Family Services in Canada: Final Report (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1987), pp. 3-4; Patrick Johnston, Native Children and the Child Welfare System (Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development, 1983); Brian harf, Toward First Nation Control of Child Welfare: A Review of Emerging Developments in B.C. (Victoria: University of Victoria, 1987), pp. 9-10.
83. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15, correspondence from F. J. Alcock, Chief Curator, National Museum of Canada, to D. M. McKay, Director, Indian Affairs Branch, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Ottawa, November 21, 1949.
84. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15, correspondence from Mrs. R. A. Farmer, Brantford Local Council of Women, to Hon. Ross Macdonald, K.C., May 17, 1950.
85. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15, correspondence from F. J. Alcock to Mrs. R. A. Farmer, May 23, 1950.
86. See NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8617, Paris 8 to 10; vol. 8618, file 1/1-15.
87. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, memorandum from T. F. McIlwraith, University of Toronto, Department of Anthropology, to members of the Advisory Panel on Indian Research, no date, but about February 1951.
88. Ibid.
89. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, minutes of the Panel on Indian Research, September 21, 1951. "Advisory" had been dropped from the panel's official title.
90. Ibid.
91. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol 8618, file 1/1-15-1, Results of I.Q. Test of Indians at the Caradoc Reserve, Ontario, conducted by D. J. Penfold under the directon of G. H. Turner, University of Western Ontario, reported by Dr. N. W. Morton to the Panel on Indian Research, Ottawa, October 14, 1951.
92. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15-1, Part 1, correspondence from Dorothy Woodward to S. D. MacKay, Director of Indian Affairs, March 11, 1952.
93. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15-1, Part 3, internal correspondence from R. F. Davey, Indian Affairs Branch, to Col. E. Acland, March 4, 1954.
94. NAC RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15-1, Part 3, correspondence from J. P. B. Ostrander, Superintendent, Welfare Service, to Col. H. M. Jones, Director, Indian Affairs Branch, March 3, 1954.
95. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15-1, Part 3, letter from H. M. Jones, Director, Indian Affairs Branch, to Col. Laval Fortier, Deputy Minister, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, April 1, 1954.
96. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, "Social Problems of the Ojibwa Indians in the Collins Area in Northwestern Ontario", received by the Department of Citizenship and Immigration, May 12, 1958; correspondence from Laval Fortier, Deputy Minister, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, to William Baldwin, May 14, 1958.
97. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol.8618, file 1/1-15-1, correspondence between Dr. Frank Vallee, Citizenship Branch, and F. H. Tyler, J. H. Gordon, and Col. H. M. Jones, Indian Affairs Branch, March 15 and 27, April 17, 23, and 24, 1957; correspondence between Jones and R. F. Battle, Regional Supervisor of Indian Agencies, Alberta, April 30, May 9, and September 5, 1957. Vallee went on to a distinguished academic career at Carlelon University, Ottawa.
98. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8617, file 1/1-15, Part 8, correspondence to various Regional officials concerning the visit of Professor Lisabeth Welskopf-Henrich of East Berlin, German Democratic Republic, Summer 1963. Professor Welskopf-Henrich visited various Indian hands throughout the country collecting information for a children's book on Indian myths and legends. Officials were instructed not to discuss Indian policy with her for fear of adverse foreign publicity.
99. H. B. Hawthorn, C. S. Belshaw, and S. M. Jamieson, The Indians of British Columbia (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1958), cited in Sally M. Weaver, Making Canadian Indian Policy: The Hidden Agenda 1968-1970 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981), p. 21.
100. H. B. Hawthorn, C. S. Belshaw, and S. M. Jamieson, The Indians of British Columbia (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1958), cited in Sally M. Weaver, Making Canadian Indian Policy: The Hidden Agenda 1968-1970 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981), p. 21.
101. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15, Part 3, correspondence from Jean Boucher, Assistant to the Deputy Minister, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, to Dr. H. B. Hawthorn, March 30, 1954.
102. Ibid.
103. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8616, file 1/1-15, Part 4, proposal of Professor W. J. Morris, University of Toronto, in correspondence from Morris to Colonel H. M. Jones, Indian Affairs Branch, November 30, 1959.
104. Ibid.
105. See, for example, Weaver, Making Canadian Indian Policy, pp. 20-22.
106. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", p. 377.
107. Ibid., p. 378.
108. Ibid.
109. Ibid.
110. Ibid., pp. 378-379.
111. Ibid., p. 379.
112. See Vivian et al., The Nutrition and Health of the James Bay Indian.
113. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", pp. 379-380.
114. Ibid.
115. Ibid.
116. Ibid., p. 381.
117. Ibid., p. 382.
118. Ibid. Honigmann seemed more concerned with the ethics of the study as it pertained to its implications for government administrators than for Indians.
119. Honigmann's view of democracy was distinctly liberal. See C. B. Macpherson's classic discussion of democracy, The Real World of Democracy (Toronto: CBC Enterprises, 1965).
120. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", p. 382.
121. Ibid. Honigmann's knowledge of government relief policy was either minimal or tainted by his implicit attitudes relief (welfare) as a legitimate government funvtion, or as a sign of shortcoming on the part of the recipient. During the Great Depression, for example, the average per capita expenditure on Indian relief from 1932 to 1936 - based on the percentage of the on-reserve population in receipt - was $19.64. This compared to $51.05 in the general Canadian population. See Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare in the Canadian Liberal State", p. 325.
122. Ibid. Honigmann's knowledge of government relief policy was either minimal or tainted by his implicit attitudes relief (welfare) as a legitimate government funvtion, or as a sign of shortcoming on the part of the recipient. During the Great Depression, for example, the average per capita expenditure on Indian relief from 1932 to 1936 - based on the percentage of the on-reserve population in receipt - was $19.64. This compared to $51.05 in the general Canadian population. See Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare in the Canadian Liberal State", p. 325.
123. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", p. 383.
124. See Wolf, Europe and the People Without History.
125. Honigmann, "The Logic of the James Bay Survey", p. 383.
126. Ibid.
127. Ibid.
128. Ibid., p. 385.
129. Ibid.
130. Ibid.
131. Ibid., pp. 385-386.
132. NAC, RG 10, CR Series, vol. 8618, file 1/1-15-1, memorandum from Major C. A. F. Clark, Welfare and Training Service, to Colonel B. F. Neary, Superintendent of Education, Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa, September 14, 1948.
133. Dyck, What is the Indian "Problem".
134. Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare"; Hugh Shewell and Annabella Spagnut, "The First Nations of Canada: Social Welfare and the Ouest for Self-government" in John Dixon and Robert P. Scheurell, eds., Social Welfare with Indigenous Peoples (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 1-53.
135. Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare"; Hugh Shewell and Annabella Spagnut, "The First Nations of Canada: Social Welfare and the Ouest for Self-government" in John Dixon and Robert P. Scheurell, eds., Social Welfare with Indigenous Peoples (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 1-53.
136. Shewell, "Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare"; Hugh Shewell and Annabella Spagnut, "The First Nations of Canada: Social Welfare and the Ouest for Self-government" in John Dixon and Robert P. Scheurell, eds., Social Welfare with Indigenous Peoples (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 1-53.
137. Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971), cited in Patrick Brantlinger, Crusoe's Footprints: Cultural Studies in Britain and America (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 98-103.
138. Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971), cited in Patrick Brantlinger, Crusoe's Footprints: Cultural Studies in Britain and America (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 98-103.
139. Michel Foucault, "Truth and Power" in Colin Gordon, ed., Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), pp. 109-133.
140. See, for example, Taiaiake Alfred, Peace, Power, Righteousness: An Indigenous Manifesto (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1999); Peter Kulchyski, " 'A Considerable Unrest': F. O. Loft and the League of Indians", Native Studies Review, vol. 4, nos. 1-2, (1988), pp. 95-117; Shewell, "Jules Sioui"; Paul Tennant, "Native Indian Political Organization in British Columbia, 1900-1969: A Response to Internal Colonialism", B.C. Studies, no. 55 (Autumn 1982), pp. 3-49.
141. See, for example, Taiaiake Alfred, Peace, Power, Righteousness: An Indigenous Manifesto (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1999); Peter Kulchyski, " 'A Considerable Unrest': F. O. Loft and the League of Indians", Native Studies Review, vol. 4, nos. 1-2, (1988), pp. 95-117; Shewell, "Jules Sioui"; Paul Tennant, "Native Indian Political Organization in British Columbia, 1900-1969: A Response to Internal Colonialism", B.C. Studies, no. 55 (Autumn 1982), pp. 3-49.
142. See, for example, Taiaiake Alfred, Peace, Power, Righteousness: An Indigenous Manifesto (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1999); Peter Kulchyski, " 'A Considerable Unrest': F. O. Loft and the League of Indians", Native Studies Review, vol. 4, nos. 1-2, (1988), pp. 95-117; Shewell, "Jules Sioui"; Paul Tennant, "Native Indian Political Organization in British Columbia, 1900-1969: A Response to Internal Colonialism", B.C. Studies, no. 55 (Autumn 1982), pp. 3-49.
143. See, for example, Taiaiake Alfred, Peace, Power, Righteousness: An Indigenous Manifesto (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1999); Peter Kulchyski, " 'A Considerable Unrest': F. O. Loft and the League of Indians", Native Studies Review, vol. 4, nos. 1-2, (1988), pp. 95-117; Shewell, "Jules Sioui"; Paul Tennant, "Native Indian Political Organization in British Columbia, 1900-1969: A Response to Internal Colonialism", B.C. Studies, no. 55 (Autumn 1982), pp. 3-49.