Body mass estimates in extinct mammals from limb bone dimensions: The case of North American Hyaenodontids

Palaeontology

Volumn 44, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 497-528

  Egi, Naoko ^a  

^a DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Body mass estimates; Carnivorous mammals; Hyaenodontidae; Limb bone dimensions

Indexed keywords

BODY MASS; BONE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; MAMMAL; PALEOGENE; PHYLOGENY;

HYAENODONTIDAE;

EID: 0035338289     PISSN: 00310239     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1475-4983.00189     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. ABE, H., ISHI, N., KANEKO, Y., MAEDA, K., MIURA, S. and YONEDA, M. 1994. A pictorial guide to the mammals of Japan. Tokai University Press, Tokyo, 195 pp. [In Japanese].
2. ALEXANDER, R. M. 1985. Body support, scaling, and allometry. 26-37. In HILDEBRAND, M., BRAMBLE, M., LIEM, M. and WAKE, D. (eds). Functional vertebrate morphology. Belknap Press, Cambridge, 430 pp.
3. -JAYES, A. S., MALOIY, G. M. O. and WATHUTA, E. M. 1979. Allometry of the limb bones of mammals from shrews (Sorex) to elephants (Loxodonta). Journal of Zoology, London, 189, 305-314.
4. ALROY, J. 1998. Cope's rule and the dynamics of body mass evolution in North American fossil mammals. Science, 280, 731-734.
5. ANYONGE, W. 1993. Body mass in large extant and extinct carnivores. Journal of Zoology, London, 231, 339-350.
6. AYKROYD, R. D., LUCY, D., POLLARD, A. M. and SOLHEIM, T. 1997. Technical note: regression analysis in adult age estimation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 104, 259-265.
7. BARRY, J. C. 1988. Dissopsalis, a Middle and Late Miocene proviverrine creodont (Mammalia) from Pakistan and Kenya. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 8, 25-45.
8. BEKOFF, M. 1982. Coyote (Canis latrans). 447-459. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
9. -1987. Canis latrans. Mammalian Species, 186, 1-4.
10. BERGGREN, W. A., KENT, D. V., AUBRY, M.-P., SWISHER, C. C., III and MILLER, K. G. 1995. A revised Paleogene geochronology and chronostratigraphy. SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) Special Publication, 54, 129-212.
11. BERTA, A. 1982. Cerdocyon thous. Mammalian Species, 79, 1-9.
12. BEYER, W. H. 1991. CRC standard mathematical tables and formulae, 29th edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 609 pp.
13. BIEWENER, A. A. 1982. Bone strength in small mammals and bipedal birds: do safety factors change with body size? Journal of Experimenral Biology, 98, 289-301.
14. -1989. Scaling body support in mammals: limb posture and muscle mechanics. Science, 245, 45-48.
15. -1992. Overview of structural mechanics. 1-20. In BIEWENER, A. A. (ed.). Biomechanics - structure and systems: a practical approach. IRL Press, Oxford, 290 pp.
16. BOWN, T. M., ROSE K. D., SIMONS, E. L. and WING, S. L. 1994. Distribution and stratigraphic correlation of upper Paleocene and lower Eocene fossil mammal localities of the Fort Union, Willwood and Tatman formations, southern Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. Professional Paper of the United States Geological Survey, 1540, 1-103.
17. BRYANT, H. N., RUSSELL, A. P. and FITCH, W. 1993. Phylogenetic relationships within the Mustelidae (Carnivora): appraisal of the cladistic status of the Simpsonian subfamilies. Zoological Journal of Linnean Society, 108, 310-334.
18. BURT, W. H. and GROSSENHEIDER, R. P. 1976. A field guide to the mammals. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 271 pp.
19. CHEVERUD, J. M., DOW, M. M. and LEUTENEGGER, W. 1985. The quantitative assessment of phylogenetic constraints in comparative analysis: sexual dimorphism in body weight among primates. Evolution, 39, 1335-1351.
20. CLARKE, M. R. B. 1980. The reduced major axis of bivariate sample. Biometrika, 2, 441-446.
21. CLARKE, T. W., ANDERSON, E., DOUGLUS, C. and STRICKLAND, M. 1987. Martes americana. Mammalian Species, 289, 1-8.
22. CONROY, G. C. 1987. Problems of body-weight estimation in fossil primates. International Journal of Primatology, 8, 115-137.
23. COPE, E. D. 1875. On the supposed Carnivora of ,the Eocene of Rocky Mountains. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 27, 444-448.
24. -1877. Report upon the extinct Vertebrata obtained in New Mexico by parties of the expedition of 1874. Report upon the United States Geological Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, in charge of First Lieutnant G. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, US Army, 4, Paleontology, Part 3, 370 pp.
25. CRAIGHEAD, J. J. and MITCHELL, J. A. 1982. Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos). 515-556. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
26. CURREY, J. 1984. The mechanical adaptations of bones. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 294 pp.
27. DAMUTH, J. 1990. Problems in estimating body masses of archaic ungulates using dental measurements. 229-254. In DAMUTH, J. and MACFADDEN, B. J. (eds). Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications. Cambridge University Press, New York, 397 pp.
28. DEMES, B. and GÜNTHER, M. M. 1989. Biomechanics and allometric scaling in primate locomotion and morphology. Folia Primatologica, 53, 125-141.
29. DENISON, R. H. 1938. The broad-skulled pseudocreodi. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 37, 163-257.
30. DRAGOO, J. W. and HONEYCUTT, R. L. 1997. Systematics of mustelid-like carnivores. Journal of Mammalogy, 78, 426-443.
31. EGI, N. 1999. Functional morphology of the limb bones in Recent carnivores and its applications to North American hyaenodontid Creodonta. PhD Dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 476 pp.
32. EISENBERG, J. F. 1981. The mammalian radiations. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 610 pp.
33. -1989. Mammals of the neotropics. volume 1: the northern neotropics. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 449 pp.
34. EMMONS, L. H. and FEER, F. 1990. Neotropical rainforest mammals: afield guide. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 281 pp.
35. FISH, F. E. 1993. Comparison of swimming kinematics between terrestrial and semiaquatic opossums. Journal of Mammalogy, 74, 275-284.
36. FORD, L. S. and HOFFMANN, R. S. 1988. Potos flavus. Mammalian Species, 321, 1-9.
37. FOX, B. J. 1982. A review of dasyurid ecology and speculation on the role of limiting similarity in community organization. 97-116. In ARCHER. M. (ed.). Carnivorous marsupials. Royal Zoology Society of New South Wales, Mosman, NSW, 594 pp.
38. FRITZELL, E. K. and HAROLDSON, K. J. 1982. Urocyon cinereoargenteus. Mammalian Species, 189, 1-8.
39. GEBO, D. L. and ROSE, K. D. 1993. Skeletal morphology and locomotor adaptation in Prolimnocyon atavus, an early Eocene hyaenodontid creodont. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 13, 125-144.
40. GINGERICH, P. D. 1977. New species of Eocene primates and the phylogeny of European Adapidae. Folia Primatologica, 28, 60-80.
41. -1980. Evolutionary patterns in Early Cenozoic mammals. Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 8, 407-424.
42. -1983. Origin and evolution of species: evidence from the fossil record. 125-130. In CHALINE, J. (ed.). Modalités, rythmes, mécanismes de l'évolution biologique. Gradualisme phylétique ou équilibres ponctués? Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 339 pp.
43. -1989. New earliest Wasatchian mammalian fauna from the Eocene of northwestern Wyoming: composition and diversity in a rarely sampled high-floodplain assemblage. Papers on Paleontology, University of Michigan, 28, 1-97.
44. -1990. Prediction of body mass in mammalian species from long bone lengths and diameters. Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan, 28, 79-92.
45. -and DEUTSCH, H. A. 1989. Systematics and evolution of Early Eocene Hyaenodontidae (Mammalia, Creodonta) in the Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming. Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan, 27, 327-391.
46. -SMITH, B. H. and ROSENBERG, K. 1982. Allometric scaling in the dentition of primates and predictions of body weight from tooth size in fossils. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 58, 81-100.
47. GITTLEMAN, J. L. 1986. Carnivore life history patterns: allometric, phylogenetic, and ecological associations. American Naturalist, 127,7'44-77rl.
48. -1989. Carnivore group living: comparative trends. 183-207. In GITTLEMAN, J. L. (ed.). Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 620 pp.
49. -and KOT, M. 1990. Adaptations: statistics and a null model for estimating phylogenetic effects. Systematic Zoology, 39, 227-241.
50. GODFREY, L. R., SUTHERLAND, M. R., BOY, D. S. and GOMBERG, N. 1991. Scaling of limb joint surface areas in anthropoid and other mammals. Journal of Zoology, London, 223, 603-625.
51. - PAINE, R. R., WILLIAMS, F. L., BOY, D. S. and VUILLAUME-RANDRIAMANANTENA, M. 1995. Limb joint surface areas and their ratios in Malagasy lemurs and other mammals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 97, 11-36.
52. GODIN, A. J. 1982. Striped and hooded skunks (Mephitis mephitis and allies). 674-687. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
53. GUNNELL, G. F. 1989. Evolutionary history of the Microsyopoidea (Mammalia, ?Primates) and the relationship between Plesiadapiformes and Primates. University of Michigan Papers on Paleontology, 27, 1-157.
54. -1998. Creodonta. 91-109. In JANIS, C. M., SCOTT, K. M. and JACOBS, L. L. (eds). Evolution of Tertiary mammals of North America. Volume I: terrestrial carnivores, ungulates, and ungulatelike mammals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 691 pp.
55. GUSTAFSON, E. P. 1986. Carnivorous mammals of the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene of Trans-Pecos Texas. Texas Memorial Museum Bulletin, 33, 1-66.
56. HARVEY, P. H. and PAGEL, M. D. 1991. The comparative method in evolutionary biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 239 pp.
57. HEINRICH, R. E. 1995. Functional morphology and body size of early Tertiary Miacoidea (Mammalia, Carnivora). PhD Dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 241 pp.
58. -and ROSE, K. D. 1995. Partial skeleton of the primitive carnivoran, Miacis petilus, from the early Eocene of Wyoming. Journal of Mammalogy, 76, 148-162.
59. HOWARD, W. E. and MARSH, R. E. 1982. Spotted and hog-nosed skunks (Spilogale putorius and allies). 664-673. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
60. IVY, L. D. 1993. Systematic revision of early to middle Eocene North American Hyaenodontidae (Mammalia, Creodonta). PhD thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, 463 pp.
61. JANIS, C. M. 1990. Correlation of cranial and dental variables with body size in ungulates and macropodoids. 255-300. In DAMUTH, J. and MACFADDEN, B. J. (eds). Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications. Cambridge University Press, New York, 397 pp.
62. JENKINS, F. A., Jr and CAMAZINE, S. M. 1977. Hip structure and locomotion in ambulatory and cursorial carnivores. Journal of Zoology, London, 181, 351-370.
63. -and MCCLEARN, D. 1984. Mechanics of hind foot reversal in climbing mammals. Journal of Morphology, 182, 197-219.
64. JOSEPHSON, S. C., JUELL, K. E. and ROGERS, A. R. 1996. Estimating sexual dimorphism by method-of-moments. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 100, 191-206.
65. KAUFMANN, J. H. and KAUFMANN, A. 1965. Observations of the behavior of tayras and grisons. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde, 30, 146-155.
66. KAUFMANN, J. W. 1982. Raccoon and allies (Procyon lotor and allies). 567-585. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
67. KELLEY, J. 1995. Sex determination in Miocene catarrhine primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 96, 391-418.
68. KIMBEL, W. H., JOHANSON, D. C. and RAK, Y. 1994. The first skull and other new discoveries of Australopithecus afarensis at Hadar, Ethiopia. Nature, 368, 449-451.
69. KING, C. M. 1989. The advantages and disadvantages of small size to weasels, Mustela species. 302-334. In GITTLEMAN, J. L. (ed.). Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 620 pp.
70. KINGDON, J. 1977. East African mammals: volume IIIA, Carnivores. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 476 pp.
71. -1997. The Kingdon field guide to African mammals. Academic Press, New York, 464 pp.
72. KRISHTALKA, L., STUCKY, R. K. and BEARD, K. C. 1990. The earliest evidence for sexual dimorphism in primates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 87, 5223-5226.
73. - WEST, R. M., MCKENNA, M. C., BLACK, C. C., BOWN, T. M., DAWSON, M. R., GOLZ, D. J., FLYNN, J. J., LILLEGRAVEN, J. A. and TURNBULL, W. D. 1987. Eocene (Wasatchian through Duchesnean) biochronology of North America. 77-117. In WOODBURNE, M. O. (ed.). Cenozoic mammals of North America. University of California Press, Berkeley, 336 pp.
74. KROTT, P. 1962. Ways of the wolverines. Natural History, 69, 16-29.
75. LANGE-BADRÉ. B. 1979. Les Créodontes (Mammlia) d'Europe occidentale de l'Éocéne supérieur a l'Oligocene supérieur. Mémoires du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Série C, Sciences de la Terre, 42, 1-249.
76. LEE, A. K., WOOLLEY, P. and BRAITHWAITE, R. W. 1982. Life history strategies of dasyurid marsupials. 1-11. In ARCHER, M. (ed.). Carnivorous marsupials. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mosman, NSW, 594 pp.
77. LEGENDRE, S. and ROTH, C. 1988. Correlation of carnassial tooth size and body weight in Recent carnivores (Mammalia).Historical Biology, 1, 85-98.
78. LINDZEY, F. G. 1982. Badger (Taxidea taxus). 653-663. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
79. LONG, C. A. 1973. Taxidea taxus. Mammalian Species, 26, 1-4.
80. LOTZE, J. -H. and ANDERSON, S. 1979. Procyon lotor. Mammalian Species, 119, 1-8.
81. MACDONALD, D. 1984. The encyclopedia of mammals. Facts on File Publications, New York, 895 pp.
82. MATTHEW, W. D. 1901. Fossil mammals of the Tertiary of northeastern Colorado. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, 1, 355-447.
83. -1906. The osteology of Sinopa, a creodont mammal of the Middle Eocene. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 30, 203-233.
84. -1909. The Carnivora and Insectivora of the Bridger Basin, Middle Eocene. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, 4, 291-567.
85. -1915. A revision of the Lower Eocene Wasatch and Wind River Faunas. Part I. - Order Ferae (Carnivora). Suborder Creodonta. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 34, 4-103.
86. MCCLEARN, D. 1992. Locomotion, posture, and feeding behaviors of kinkajous, coatis, and raccoons. Journal of Mammalogy, 73, 245-261.
87. MCCORD, C. M. and CARDOZA, J. E. 1982. Bobcat and lynx (Felis rufus and F. lynx). 728-767. In CHAPMAN. J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
88. MCNAB, B. K. 1989. Basal rate of metabolism, body size, and food habits in the order Carnivora. 335-354. In GITTLEMAN, J. L. (ed.). Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 620 pp.
89. MELLETT, J. S. 1977. Paleobiology of North American Hyaenodon (Mammalia, Creodonta). Contributions to Vertebrate Evolution, 1, 1-134.
90. MORLO, M. 1999. Niche structure and evolution in creodont (Mammalia) faunas of the European and North American Eocene. Geobios, 32, 297-305.
91. MUIZON, C. de and LANGE-BADRÉ. B. 1997. Carnivorous dental adaptations in tribosphenic mammals and phylogenetic reconstruction. Lethaia, 30, 353-366.
92. NAGURKA, M. J. and HAYES. W. C. 1980. An interactive graphics package for calculating cross-sectional properties of complex shapes. Journal of Biomechanics, 13, 59-64.
93. NOWAK, R. M. 1991. Walker's mammals of the World, 5th edition. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1629 pp.
94. POGLAYEN-NEUWELL, I. and TOWEILL, D. E. 1988. Bassariscus astutus. Mammalian Species, 327, 1-8.
95. POLLY, P. D. 1993. Hyaenodontidae (Creodonta, Mammalia) and the position of systematics in evolutionary biology. PhD Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 283 pp.
96. -1996. The skeleton of Gazinocyon vulpeculus gen. comb. nov. and the cladistic relationships of Hyaenodontidae (Eutheria, Mammalia). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 16, 303-319.
97. POWELL, R. A. 1981. Martes pennanti. Mammalian Species, 156, 1-6.
98. PROTHERO, D. R. 1994. The Eocene-Oligocene transition. Columbia University Press, New York, 291 pp.
99. -and BERGGREN, W. A. 1992. Eocene-Oligocene climatic and biotic evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 567 pp.
100. RAFFERTY, K. L. 1996. Joint design in primates: external and subarticular properties in relation to body size and locomotor behavior. PhD Dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 307 pp.
101. -and RUFF, C. B. 1994. Articular structure and function in Hylobates, Colobus, and Papio. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 94, 395-408.
102. -WALKER, A., RUFF, C. B., ROSE, M. D. and ANDREWS, P. J. 1995. Postcranial estimates of body weight in Proconsul, with a note on a distal tibia of P. major from Napak, Uganda. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 97, 391-402.
103. REDFORD, K. F. and EISENBERG, J. F. 1992 Mammals of the neotropics volume 2: the Southern Cone. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 430 pp.
104. ROBERTS, M. S. and GITTLEMAN, J. L. 1984. Ailurus fulgens. Mammalian Species, 222, 1-8.
105. RUFF, C. B. 1988. Hindlimb articular surface allometry in Hominoidea and Macaca with comparisons to diaphyseal scaling. Journal of Human Evolution, 17, 687-714.
106. -1989. New approach to structural evolution of limb bones in primates. Folia Primatologica, 53, 142-159.
107. -1990. Body mass and hindlimb bone cross-sectional and articular dimensions in anthropoid primates. 119-150. In DAMUTH, J. and MACFADDEN, B. J. (eds). Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications. Cambridge University Press, New York, 397 pp.
108. -and HAYES, W. C. 1983. Cross-sectional geometry of Pecos Pueblo femora and tibiae, a biomechanical investigation: I. Method and general patterns of variation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60, 359-381.
109. -and RUNESTAD, J. A. 1992. Primate limb bone structural adaptations. Annual Reviews in Anthropology, 21, 407-433.
110. -WALKER, A. and TEAFORD, M. F. 1989. Body mass, sexual dimorphism and femoral proportions of Proconsul from Rusinga and Mfangaro Islands, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 18, 515-536.
111. RUNESTAD, J. A. 1994. Humeral and femoral diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry and articular dimensions in Prosimii and Platyrrhini (primates) with applications for reconstruction of body mass and locomotor behavior in Adapidae (Primate: Eocene). PhD Dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 443 pp.
112. -RUFF, C. B., NIEH, J., THORINGTON, R. W. and TEAFORD, M. F. 1993. Radiographic estimation of long bone cross-sectional geometric properties. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 90, 207-213.
113. SAMUEL, D. E. and NELSON, B. B. 1982. Foxes (Vulpes vulpes and allies). 475-490. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
114. SAVAGE, R. J. G. 1973. Megistotherium, gigantic hyaenodont from Miocene of Gebel Zelten, Libya. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Geology, 22, 483-511.
115. SCHAFFLER, M. B., BURR, D. B., JUNGERS, W. L. and RUFF, C. B. 1985. Structural and mechanical indicators of limb specialization in primates. Folia Primatologica, 45, 61-75.
116. SCHANKLER, D. M. 1980. Faunal zonation of the Willwood Formation in the central Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. University of Michigan, Papers in Paleontology, 24, 99-114.
117. SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, K. 1984. Scaling: why is animal size so important? Cambridge University Press, New York, 241 pp.
118. SCHMITT, D. 1994. Forelimb mechanics as a function of substrate type during quadrupedalism in two anthropoid primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 26, 441-457.
119. SCOTT, K. M. 1990. Postcranial dimensions of ungulates as predictors of body mass. 301-336. In DAMUTH, J. and MACFADDEN, B. J. (eds). Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications. Cambridge University Press, New York, 397 pp.
120. SCOTT, W. B. and JEPSEN, G. L. 1936. The mammalian fauna of the White River Oligocene. Part I. Insectivora and Carnivora. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 28, 1-153.
121. SILVA, M. and DAWNING, J. A. 1995. CRC handbook of mammalian body masses. CRC Press, New York, 359 pp.
122. SMITH, A. P. 1982. Review of the thylacine (Marsupialia, Thylacinidae). 237-253. In ARCHER, M. (ed.). Carnivorous marsupials. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mosman, NSW, 594 pp.
123. SMITH, R. J. 1981. Interpretation of correlation in intraspecific and interspecific allometry. Growth, 45, 291-297.
124. -1984. Allometric scaling in comparative biology: problems of concept and method. American Journal of Physiology, 246, R152-R160.
125. -1993. Bias in equations used to estimate fossil primate body mass. Journal of Human Evolution, 25, 31-41.
126. -1994a. Degrees of freedom in interspecific allometry: an adjustment for the effects of phylogenetic constraint. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 93, 95-108.
127. -1994b. Regression models for prediction equations. Journal of Human Evolution, 26, 239-244.
128. STRAHAN, R. 1995. Mammals of Australia. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 756 pp.
129. STRICKLAND, M. A., DOUGLAS, C. W., NOVAK, M. and HUNZIGER, N. P. 1982a. Fisher. 586-598. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
130. - 19826. Marten. 599-612. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
131. STUCKY, R. K. 1984. Revision of the Wind River faunas, early Eocene of central Wyoming. Part 5: geology and mammalian biostratigraphy of the upper part of the Wind River Formation. Annals of the Carnegie Museum, 53, 231-294.
132. SWARTZ, S. M. 1989. The functional morphology of weight bearing: limb joint surface area allometry in anthropoid primates. Journal of Zoology, London, 218, 441-460.
133. -1993. Biomechanics of primate limbs. 5-42. In GEBO, D. L. (ed.). Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates. Northern Illinois University Press, DeKalb, 281 pp.
134. -and BIEWENER, A. A. 1992. Shape and scaling. 21-44. In BIEWENER, A. A. (ed.). Biomechanics - structure and systems: a practical approach. IRL Press, Oxford, 290 pp.
135. TAYLOR, M. E. 1970. Locomotion in some East African viverrids. Journal of Mammalogy, 51, 42-51.
136. -1974. The functional anatomy of the forelimb of some African Viverridae (Carnivora). Journal of Morphology, 143, 307-336.
137. -1976. The functional anatomy of the hindlimb of some African Viverridae (Carnivora). Journal of Morphology, 148, 227-254.
138. TERRES, J. K. 1939. Tree-climbing technique of a gray fox. Journal of Mammalogy, 20, 256.
139. TOWEILL, D. E. and TABOR, J. E. 1982. River otter (Lutra canadensis). 688-703. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
140. TRAPP, G. R. 1972. Some anatomical and behavioral adaptations of ringtails, Bassariscus astutus. Journal of Mammalogy, 53, 549-557.
141. TSUTAKAWA, R. K. and HEWETT. J. E. 1977. Quick test for comparing two populations with bivariate data. Biometrics, 33, 215-219.
142. UNDERWOOD, L. and MOSHER, J. A. 1982. Artic fox (Alopex lagopus). 491-503. In CHAPMAN, J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
143. VAN VALKENBURGH, B. 1985. Locomotor diversity within past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology, 11, 406-428.
144. -1987. Skeletal indicators of locomotor behavior in living and extinct carnivores. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 7, 162-182.
145. -1988. Trophic diversity in past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology, 14, 155-173.
146. -1990. Skeletal and dental predictors of body mass in carnivores. 181-206. In DAMUTH, J. and MACFADDEN, B. J. (eds). Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications. Cambridge University Press, New York, 397 pp.
147. -1992. Tracking ecology over geological time: evolution within guilds of vertebrates. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 10, 71-76.
148. -1994. Extinction and replacement among predatory mammals in the North American Late Eocene and Oligocene: tracking a paleoguild over twelve million years. Historical Biology, 8, 1-22
149. WADE-SMITH. J. and VERTS, B. 1982. Mephitis mephitis. Mammalian Species, 173, 1-7.
150. WANG, X. 1993. Transformation from plantigrady to digitigrady: functional morphology of locomotion in Hesperocyon (Canidae: Carnivora). American Museum Novitates, 3069, 1-23.
151. WILLIAMS, T. M. 1983a. Locomotion in the North American mink, a semi-aquatic mammal: I. Swimming energetics and body drag. Journal of Experimental Biology, 103, 155-168.
152. -1983b. Locomotion in the North American mink, a semi-aquatic mammal: II. The effect of an elongate body on running energetics and gait patterns. Journal of Experimental Biology, 105, 283-295.
153. WILSON, D. E. 1982. Wolverine (Gulo gulo). 644-652. In CHAPMAN. J. A. and FELDHAMER, G. A. (eds). Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 pp.
154. -and REEDER, D. M. 1992. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 1206 pp.
155. WOODBURNE, M. O. (ed.) 1987. Cenozoic mammals of North America. University of California Press, Berkeley, 336 pp.
156. WORTMAN, J. L. 1901. Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. American Journal of Sciences, 4th Series, 11, 1-145.