The Jewish problem in U.S. medical education, 1920-1955

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 56, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 140-167

  Halperin, Edward C ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EDUCATION; HISTORY; HUMAN; JEW; MEDICAL SCHOOL; MEDICAL STUDENT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; STATISTICS; UNITED STATES;

HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; JEWS; PREJUDICE; SCHOOL ADMISSION CRITERIA; SCHOOLS, MEDICAL; STUDENTS, MEDICAL; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0035317007     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/56.2.140     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Saul Jarcho, "Medical education in the United States - 1910-1956," J. Mount Sinai Hosp., 1959, 26, 339-85, p. 358.
2. Cecil Roth, A Short History of the Jewish people (Hartford, U.K.: Hartmore House, 1969) pp. 386-89; Abraham Leon Sachar, A History of the Jews, 5th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); Bernard Martin, A History of Judaism, 2 vols. (New York: Basic Books, 1974), II, 319-48; Seymour Rossel, Journey through Jewish History: The Age of Faith and the Age of Freedom (New York: Berman House, 1983), pp. 95-97; Rufus Learsi [pseud. for Israel Goldberg], The Jews in America: A History (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1954), p. 125; Paul Borchsenius, The History of the Jews, 5 vols. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965) IV, 149-76.
3. Cecil Roth, A Short History of the Jewish people (Hartford, U.K.: Hartmore House, 1969) pp. 386-89; Abraham Leon Sachar, A History of the Jews, 5th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); Bernard Martin, A History of Judaism, 2 vols. (New York: Basic Books, 1974), II, 319-48; Seymour Rossel, Journey through Jewish History: The Age of Faith and the Age of Freedom (New York: Berman House, 1983), pp. 95-97; Rufus Learsi [pseud. for Israel Goldberg], The Jews in America: A History (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1954), p. 125; Paul Borchsenius, The History of the Jews, 5 vols. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965) IV, 149-76.
4. Cecil Roth, A Short History of the Jewish people (Hartford, U.K.: Hartmore House, 1969) pp. 386-89; Abraham Leon Sachar, A History of the Jews, 5th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); Bernard Martin, A History of Judaism, 2 vols. (New York: Basic Books, 1974), II, 319-48; Seymour Rossel, Journey through Jewish History: The Age of Faith and the Age of Freedom (New York: Berman House, 1983), pp. 95-97; Rufus Learsi [pseud. for Israel Goldberg], The Jews in America: A History (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1954), p. 125; Paul Borchsenius, The History of the Jews, 5 vols. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965) IV, 149-76.
5. Cecil Roth, A Short History of the Jewish people (Hartford, U.K.: Hartmore House, 1969) pp. 386-89; Abraham Leon Sachar, A History of the Jews, 5th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); Bernard Martin, A History of Judaism, 2 vols. (New York: Basic Books, 1974), II, 319-48; Seymour Rossel, Journey through Jewish History: The Age of Faith and the Age of Freedom (New York: Berman House, 1983), pp. 95-97; Rufus Learsi [pseud. for Israel Goldberg], The Jews in America: A History (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1954), p. 125; Paul Borchsenius, The History of the Jews, 5 vols. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965) IV, 149-76.
6. Cecil Roth, A Short History of the Jewish people (Hartford, U.K.: Hartmore House, 1969) pp. 386-89; Abraham Leon Sachar, A History of the Jews, 5th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); Bernard Martin, A History of Judaism, 2 vols. (New York: Basic Books, 1974), II, 319-48; Seymour Rossel, Journey through Jewish History: The Age of Faith and the Age of Freedom (New York: Berman House, 1983), pp. 95-97; Rufus Learsi [pseud. for Israel Goldberg], The Jews in America: A History (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1954), p. 125; Paul Borchsenius, The History of the Jews, 5 vols. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965) IV, 149-76.
7. Cecil Roth, A Short History of the Jewish people (Hartford, U.K.: Hartmore House, 1969) pp. 386-89; Abraham Leon Sachar, A History of the Jews, 5th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); Bernard Martin, A History of Judaism, 2 vols. (New York: Basic Books, 1974), II, 319-48; Seymour Rossel, Journey through Jewish History: The Age of Faith and the Age of Freedom (New York: Berman House, 1983), pp. 95-97; Rufus Learsi [pseud. for Israel Goldberg], The Jews in America: A History (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1954), p. 125; Paul Borchsenius, The History of the Jews, 5 vols. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965) IV, 149-76.
8. Sherry Gorelick, City College and the Jewish Poor (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1981), p. 85; Heywood Broun and George Britt, Christians Only: A Study in Prejudice (New York: Vanguard Press, 1931), p. 72; Kenneth Collins, Go and Learn: The International Story of Jews and Medicine in Scotland (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1988), p. 100.
9. Sherry Gorelick, City College and the Jewish Poor (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1981), p. 85; Heywood Broun and George Britt, Christians Only: A Study in Prejudice (New York: Vanguard Press, 1931), p. 72; Kenneth Collins, Go and Learn: The International Story of Jews and Medicine in Scotland (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1988), p. 100.
10. Sherry Gorelick, City College and the Jewish Poor (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1981), p. 85; Heywood Broun and George Britt, Christians Only: A Study in Prejudice (New York: Vanguard Press, 1931), p. 72; Kenneth Collins, Go and Learn: The International Story of Jews and Medicine in Scotland (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1988), p. 100.
11. Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carl Ladd, Jr., "Jewish academics in the United States," in Marshall Sklare, ed., The Jew in American Society (New York: Berman House, 1974), pp. 255-89; Marcia G. Synott, "Anti-Semitism and American universities: did quotas follow the Jews?" in David A. Gerber, ed. Anti-Semitism in American History (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1986), pp. 233-70; Henry Aaron Yeomans, Abbott Lawrence Lowell 1856-1943 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), p. 209; Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 85.
12. Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carl Ladd, Jr., "Jewish academics in the United States," in Marshall Sklare, ed., The Jew in American Society (New York: Berman House, 1974), pp. 255-89; Marcia G. Synott, "Anti-Semitism and American universities: did quotas follow the Jews?" in David A. Gerber, ed. Anti-Semitism in American History (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1986), pp. 233-70; Henry Aaron Yeomans, Abbott Lawrence Lowell 1856-1943 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), p. 209; Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 85.
13. Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carl Ladd, Jr., "Jewish academics in the United States," in Marshall Sklare, ed., The Jew in American Society (New York: Berman House, 1974), pp. 255-89; Marcia G. Synott, "Anti-Semitism and American universities: did quotas follow the Jews?" in David A. Gerber, ed. Anti-Semitism in American History (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1986), pp. 233-70; Henry Aaron Yeomans, Abbott Lawrence Lowell 1856-1943 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), p. 209; Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 85.
14. Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carl Ladd, Jr., "Jewish academics in the United States," in Marshall Sklare, ed., The Jew in American Society (New York: Berman House, 1974), pp. 255-89; Marcia G. Synott, "Anti-Semitism and American universities: did quotas follow the Jews?" in David A. Gerber, ed. Anti-Semitism in American History (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1986), pp. 233-70; Henry Aaron Yeomans, Abbott Lawrence Lowell 1856-1943 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), p. 209; Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 85.
15. New York Times, 17 June 1922, pp. 1, 3. For a detailed discussion see Synott (n. 4) and Marcia Graham Synott, The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1979), pp. 58-80.
16. New York Times, 17 June 1922, pp. 1, 3. For a detailed discussion see Synott (n. 4) and Marcia Graham Synott, The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1979), pp. 58-80.
17. Yeomans, (n. 4) Lowell, pp. 209-18.
18. Quoted in Jarcho (n. 1), p. 358.
19. New York Times, 1 June 1922, p. 6; 2 June 1922, p. 1; 5 June 1922, p.1; 19 September 1922, p. 3; 10 April 1923, p. 1; Report of the President and Treasurer of Haward College, 1922-1923 (Cambridge, 1924), p. 32ff.; Synott (n. 4), pp. 234-60.
20. New York Times, 1 June 1922, p. 6; 2 June 1922, p. 1; 5 June 1922, p.1; 19 September 1922, p. 3; 10 April 1923, p. 1; Report of the President and Treasurer of Haward College, 1922-1923 (Cambridge, 1924), p. 32ff.; Synott (n. 4), pp. 234-60.
21. New York Times, 1 June 1922, p. 6; 2 June 1922, p. 1; 5 June 1922, p.1; 19 September 1922, p. 3; 10 April 1923, p. 1; Report of the President and Treasurer of Haward College, 1922-1923 (Cambridge, 1924), p. 32ff.; Synott (n. 4), pp. 234-60.
22. New York Times, 1 June 1922, p. 6; 2 June 1922, p. 1; 5 June 1922, p.1; 19 September 1922, p. 3; 10 April 1923, p. 1; Report of the President and Treasurer of Haward College, 1922-1923 (Cambridge, 1924), p. 32ff.; Synott (n. 4), pp. 234-60.
23. New York Times, 1 June 1922, p. 6; 2 June 1922, p. 1; 5 June 1922, p.1; 19 September 1922, p. 3; 10 April 1923, p. 1; Report of the President and Treasurer of Haward College, 1922-1923 (Cambridge, 1924), p. 32ff.; Synott (n. 4), pp. 234-60.
24. New York Times, 1 June 1922, p. 6; 2 June 1922, p. 1; 5 June 1922, p.1; 19 September 1922, p. 3; 10 April 1923, p. 1; Report of the President and Treasurer of Haward College, 1922-1923 (Cambridge, 1924), p. 32ff.; Synott (n. 4), pp. 234-60.
25. Broun and Britt, (n. 3) Christians Only, pp. 102-4; T. Bender, New York Intellect: A History of Intellectual Life in New York City from 1750 to the Beginning of Our Own Time (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), pp. 289-292.
26. Broun and Britt, (n. 3) Christians Only, pp. 102-4; T. Bender, New York Intellect: A History of Intellectual Life in New York City from 1750 to the Beginning of Our Own Time (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), pp. 289-292.
27. Harold S. Wechsler, The Qualified Student: A History of Selective College Admission in America (New York: Wiley, 1977), pp. 161-62.
28. H. W. Davenport, "Not Just Any Medical School": The Practice, Science, and Teaching of Medicine at the University of Michigan, 1850-1941 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), pp. 29-30. [A preprint of this material was graciously provided by Howard Markel, M.D., Ph.D., Director of the Historical Center for the Health Sciences of the University of Michigan.]
29. Quoted in Max Danzis, "Jewish hospitals and facilities for graduate training," Med. Leaves, 1940, 4, 65-74, p. 66.
30. Davenport, (n. 11) Not Just Any Medical School, p. 30.
31. Jarcho, (n. 1), p. 358; W. R. Hart, Report of the special investigating committee of the council of the City of New York, adopted December 23, 1946; Leon Sokoloff, "The rise and decline of the Jewish quota in medical school admissions," Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med., 1992, 68, 497-518.
32. Quoted in Dinnerstein (n. 4), p. 86.
33. Dan A. Oren, Joining the Club: A History of Jews and Yale (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 136-58, 249-57, p. 148.
34. Quoted in Broun and Britt (n. 3), p. 130.
35. Quoted in William B. Helmreich. The Enduring Community: The Jews of Newark and Metrowest (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1999), p. 92.
36. Ibid.
37. A discussion of Abraham Flexner's role in this process is found in his autobiography, I Remember: The Autobiography of Abraham Flexner (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1940).
38. W. Reece Berryhill, William B. Blythe, and Isaac H. Manning, Medical Education at Chapel Hill: the First Hundred Years (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina School of Medicine, 1979), p. 28; Edward C. Halperin, "Frank Porter Graham, Isaac Hall Manning, and the Jewish quota at the University of North Carolina Medical School," N. C. Hist. Rev., 1990, 67, 385-410.
39. W. Reece Berryhill, William B. Blythe, and Isaac H. Manning, Medical Education at Chapel Hill: the First Hundred Years (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina School of Medicine, 1979), p. 28; Edward C. Halperin, "Frank Porter Graham, Isaac Hall Manning, and the Jewish quota at the University of North Carolina Medical School," N. C. Hist. Rev., 1990, 67, 385-410.
40. Isaac Hall Manning, "History of the UNC School of Medicine, 1879-1937," unpublished manuscript (ca. 1940), Isaac Hall Manning Papers, 1866-1946, Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Warren Ashby, Frank Porter Graham. A Southern Liberal (Winston-Salem, N.C.: John F. Blair, 1980).
45. Halperin (n. 21).
46. Henry E. Sigerist, "Trends in medical education: a program for a new medical school," Bull. Hist. Med., 1941, 9, pp. 177-198, p. 181.
47. "Jews in America," Fortune, February 1936, pp. 79-85, 128-130, 133-144; pp. 136-141.
48. Ibid., p. 141.
49. Ibid., p. 141.
50. Jarcho (n. 1).
51. Harold Rypins, "The Jewish Medical Student," undated typescript, in the Morris S. Lazaron Papers [hereafter Lazaron Papers], American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio.
52. Max Danzis, "The Jew in medicine," Am. Hebrew Jewish Tribune, 23 March 1934, pp. 372-401; Fred C. Zapffe, "Report of applicants and applicants made for admission to the 1933 freshman class of seventy-nine medical schools," J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1934, 9, 93-106. Dr. F. A. Mass, Secretary of the Committee on Aptitude Tests for Students of the Association of American Medical Colleges made "as careful a count as we can of the Jewish students who took the Aptitudes Test." (Mass to Lazaron, 1 March 1934, Lazaron Papers, [n. 33]). Rongy's work is quoted in Broun and Britt, (n. 4) Christians Only, pp. 147-50. See also A. M. Kaplan, "Are medical colleges unfair to Jewish students?" The Jewish Tribune, 1 August 1930; "Medical schools fair to Jews," The Literary Digest, 13 September 1930. Both articles may be found in the Lazaron papers (n. 33). William Pepper extensively studied Jewish admission rates to medical schools. See Pepper to Lazaron, 13 February 1934; Pepper to Dr. Alfred Stengel, 13 February 1934; Lazaron to Pepper, 15 and 16 February 1934; Pepper to Lazaron, 30 January and 16 February 1934, Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
53. Max Danzis, "The Jew in medicine," Am. Hebrew Jewish Tribune, 23 March 1934, pp. 372-401; Fred C. Zapffe, "Report of applicants and applicants made for admission to the 1933 freshman class of seventy-nine medical schools," J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1934, 9, 93-106. Dr. F. A. Mass, Secretary of the Committee on Aptitude Tests for Students of the Association of American Medical Colleges made "as careful a count as we can of the Jewish students who took the Aptitudes Test." (Mass to Lazaron, 1 March 1934, Lazaron Papers, [n. 33]). Rongy's work is quoted in Broun and Britt, (n. 4) Christians Only, pp. 147-50. See also A. M. Kaplan, "Are medical colleges unfair to Jewish students?" The Jewish Tribune, 1 August 1930; "Medical schools fair to Jews," The Literary Digest, 13 September 1930. Both articles may be found in the Lazaron papers (n. 33). William Pepper extensively studied Jewish admission rates to medical schools. See Pepper to Lazaron, 13 February 1934; Pepper to Dr. Alfred Stengel, 13 February 1934; Lazaron to Pepper, 15 and 16 February 1934; Pepper to Lazaron, 30 January and 16 February 1934, Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
54. Max Danzis, "The Jew in medicine," Am. Hebrew Jewish Tribune, 23 March 1934, pp. 372-401; Fred C. Zapffe, "Report of applicants and applicants made for admission to the 1933 freshman class of seventy-nine medical schools," J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1934, 9, 93-106. Dr. F. A. Mass, Secretary of the Committee on Aptitude Tests for Students of the Association of American Medical Colleges made "as careful a count as we can of the Jewish students who took the Aptitudes Test." (Mass to Lazaron, 1 March 1934, Lazaron Papers, [n. 33]). Rongy's work is quoted in Broun and Britt, (n. 4) Christians Only, pp. 147-50. See also A. M. Kaplan, "Are medical colleges unfair to Jewish students?" The Jewish Tribune, 1 August 1930; "Medical schools fair to Jews," The Literary Digest, 13 September 1930. Both articles may be found in the Lazaron papers (n. 33). William Pepper extensively studied Jewish admission rates to medical schools. See Pepper to Lazaron, 13 February 1934; Pepper to Dr. Alfred Stengel, 13 February 1934; Lazaron to Pepper, 15 and 16 February 1934; Pepper to Lazaron, 30 January and 16 February 1934, Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
55. Max Danzis, "The Jew in medicine," Am. Hebrew Jewish Tribune, 23 March 1934, pp. 372-401; Fred C. Zapffe, "Report of applicants and applicants made for admission to the 1933 freshman class of seventy-nine medical schools," J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1934, 9, 93-106. Dr. F. A. Mass, Secretary of the Committee on Aptitude Tests for Students of the Association of American Medical Colleges made "as careful a count as we can of the Jewish students who took the Aptitudes Test." (Mass to Lazaron, 1 March 1934, Lazaron Papers, [n. 33]). Rongy's work is quoted in Broun and Britt, (n. 4) Christians Only, pp. 147-50. See also A. M. Kaplan, "Are medical colleges unfair to Jewish students?" The Jewish Tribune, 1 August 1930; "Medical schools fair to Jews," The Literary Digest, 13 September 1930. Both articles may be found in the Lazaron papers (n. 33). William Pepper extensively studied Jewish admission rates to medical schools. See Pepper to Lazaron, 13 February 1934; Pepper to Dr. Alfred Stengel, 13 February 1934; Lazaron to Pepper, 15 and 16 February 1934; Pepper to Lazaron, 30 January and 16 February 1934, Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
56. Max Danzis, "The Jew in medicine," Am. Hebrew Jewish Tribune, 23 March 1934, pp. 372-401; Fred C. Zapffe, "Report of applicants and applicants made for admission to the 1933 freshman class of seventy-nine medical schools," J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1934, 9, 93-106. Dr. F. A. Mass, Secretary of the Committee on Aptitude Tests for Students of the Association of American Medical Colleges made "as careful a count as we can of the Jewish students who took the Aptitudes Test." (Mass to Lazaron, 1 March 1934, Lazaron Papers, [n. 33]). Rongy's work is quoted in Broun and Britt, (n. 4) Christians Only, pp. 147-50. See also A. M. Kaplan, "Are medical colleges unfair to Jewish students?" The Jewish Tribune, 1 August 1930; "Medical schools fair to Jews," The Literary Digest, 13 September 1930. Both articles may be found in the Lazaron papers (n. 33). William Pepper extensively studied Jewish admission rates to medical schools. See Pepper to Lazaron, 13 February 1934; Pepper to Dr. Alfred Stengel, 13 February 1934; Lazaron to Pepper, 15 and 16 February 1934; Pepper to Lazaron, 30 January and 16 February 1934, Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
57. Rypins, (n. 33).
58. Kevin Profitt, "A biographical sketch of Morris S. Lazaron (1888-1979)" in "An Inventory to the Morris S. Lazaron Papers," Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
59. Morris S. Lazaron, "The Jewish student in medicine," unpublished typescript, ca. 1934, Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
60. Ibid.; Pepper (n. 34).
61. Lazaron (n. 37).
62. Lee J. Levinger, "Jewish medical students in America," Med. Leaves, 1939, 2, 91-95. Sachar, (n. 2) A History, pp. 255-58.
63. Lee J. Levinger, "Jewish medical students in America," Med. Leaves, 1939, 2, 91-95. Sachar, (n. 2) A History, pp. 255-58.
64. Broun and Britt, (n. 3) Christians Only, pp. 143-47; New York Times, 28 August 1946, p. 29; 23 January 1946, p. 1.
65. Broun and Britt, (n. 3) Christians Only, pp. 143-47; New York Times, 28 August 1946, p. 29; 23 January 1946, p. 1.
66. F. Kingdom, "Discrimination in medical colleges." Am. Mercury, 1945, 56, 394.
67. "Discrimination charged," New York Times, 15 March 1956, p. 23; "Bias at Columbia denied at hearing," NewYork Times, 18 May 1946, p. 39; Natalie Berger, ed., Jews and Medicine: Religion, Culture, Science (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1997), p. 225.
68. "Discrimination charged," New York Times, 15 March 1956, p. 23; "Bias at Columbia denied at hearing," NewYork Times, 18 May 1946, p. 39; Natalie Berger, ed., Jews and Medicine: Religion, Culture, Science (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1997), p. 225.
69. "Discrimination charged," New York Times, 15 March 1956, p. 23; "Bias at Columbia denied at hearing," NewYork Times, 18 May 1946, p. 39; Natalie Berger, ed., Jews and Medicine: Religion, Culture, Science (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1997), p. 225.
70. Lazaron (n. 37).
71. Bethes to Lazaron, 23 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
72. Vinchenhaler to Lazaron, 30 January 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
73. J. N. Simpson to Lazaron, 22 February 1934. Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
74. Sachar, (n. 2) A History, pp. 255-58.
75. McLintock to Lazaron, 7 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
76. Bardeen to Lazaron, 23 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 29).
77. Curtis to Lazaron, 6 March 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
78. Wall to Lazaron, 27 February 1934; Hale to Lazaron, 30 January 1934; Whitecotton to Lazaron, 29 January 1934, Lazaron Papers, (n. 33).
79. Moss to Lazaron, 2 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
80. Loraine to Lazaron, 7 March 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
81. Ibid.
82. Bruno Lasker, ed., Jewish Experiences in America (New York: Inquiry, 1930), pp. 72-75.
83. New York Times, 21-30 June 1927, 1-3 July 1927, 5-8 July 1927.
84. Quoted in Arthur J. Linenthal, First a Dream: The History of Boston's Jewish Hospitals, 1896-1928 (Boston: Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, 1990), p. 211.
85. Lazaron, "The Jewish Student in Medicine," p. 3, chart IV, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
86. Turnbull to Lazaron, 10 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
87. Ibid.
88. Dunham to Lazaron, 13 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
89. Nolan to Lazaron, 14 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
90. O'Hanlon to Lazaron, 17 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
91. Herald to Lazaron, 15 February 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
92. Rogny, quoted in Kaplan (n. 30).
93. Kaplan (n. 34).
94. Danzis (n. 34).
95. Lazaron to Beale, 21 May 1936, Lazaron papers (n. 33).
96. Author interview with Clemintine Lazaron Kaufman, 3 February 2000. For a discussion of the differences between German-Jewish Reform society in Baltimore and RussianJewish Orthodox society, see Gilbert Sandier, "Becoming American," Baltimore, 2000, 93, 36-41.
97. Danzis (n. 34); "American students abroad," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1930, 5, 117; "Report of committee on foreign medical students," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1933, 8, 360-66; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, p. 109; F. C. Zapffe, M.D. to Lazaron, 19 November 1935, Lazaron Papers (n. 33); Sokoloff (n. 14), p. 505.
98. Danzis (n. 34); "American students abroad," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1930, 5, 117; "Report of committee on foreign medical students," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1933, 8, 360-66; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, p. 109; F. C. Zapffe, M.D. to Lazaron, 19 November 1935, Lazaron Papers (n. 33); Sokoloff (n. 14), p. 505.
99. Danzis (n. 34); "American students abroad," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1930, 5, 117; "Report of committee on foreign medical students," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1933, 8, 360-66; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, p. 109; F. C. Zapffe, M.D. to Lazaron, 19 November 1935, Lazaron Papers (n. 33); Sokoloff (n. 14), p. 505.
100. "Report of committee" (n. 71), p. 360.
101. Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, pp. 109-32; Jarcho (n. 1), p. 360.
102. Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, pp. 109-32; Sokoloff (n. 14), pp. 504-505.
103. Kenneth Collins, "American Jewish medical students in Scotland: 1925-1940," meeting abstract, Am. Assoc. History Med., 1987; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, pp. 120-21. For comparison, see Harold Rypins, "The foreign medical graduate," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1933, 8, 92-96.
104. Kenneth Collins, "American Jewish medical students in Scotland: 1925-1940," meeting abstract, Am. Assoc. History Med., 1987; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, pp. 120-21. For comparison, see Harold Rypins, "The foreign medical graduate," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1933, 8, 92-96.
105. Kenneth Collins, "American Jewish medical students in Scotland: 1925-1940," meeting abstract, Am. Assoc. History Med., 1987; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, pp. 120-21. For comparison, see Harold Rypins, "The foreign medical graduate," J. Assoc. Am. Med. College, 1933, 8, 92-96.
106. K. E. Collins. "The Jews in medicine in Scotland, part II," Proc. Roy. Coll. Physicians Edinburgh, 1989, 19, 225-30; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, p. 121.
107. K. E. Collins. "The Jews in medicine in Scotland, part II," Proc. Roy. Coll. Physicians Edinburgh, 1989, 19, 225-30; Collins, (n. 3) Go and Learn, p. 121.
108. "Medical school proposed for Jews," New York Times, 14 May 1932, p. 4; "Medical school for Jews rejected," New York Times, 7 December 1931, p. 14.
109. "Medical school proposed for Jews," New York Times, 14 May 1932, p. 4; "Medical school for Jews rejected," New York Times, 7 December 1931, p. 14.
110. "Standards of medical education," N. Engl. J. Med., 1945, 232, 146-47; Sokoloff (n. 14), pp. 506-8.
111. Sokoloff (n. 14), pp. 508-9; Larrain to Lazaron, 7 March 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
112. Finch University of Health Sciences/Chicago Medical School website (http://www. fincms.edu). Accessed 2 March 2001.
113. "Medical School Planned," New York Times, 27 September 1942, p. 27.
114. "Moved equipment from Oglethorpe College of Georgia," New York Times, 25 February 25, section IV, p. 9.
115. The "Essex College of Medicine and Surgery" file in the Special Collections/Archives of the University of Medicine & Dentistry of New Jersey Library. George F. Smith Library of the Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey. This file contains the announcement for the first and second sessions of the college, 1945-1946, and a few letters and newspaper clippings.
116. "$500,000 Sought by Essex Medical," New York Times, 23 May 1946, p. 27.
117. Additional reports concerning Essex College can be found in the New York Times, 12 January 1943, p. 8; 8 July 1943, p. 8; 22 July 1943, p. 11; 27 September 1943, p. 21; 15 October 1943, section IV, p. 9; 5 November 1943, section IV, p. 9.
118. Quoted in Ernst R. Jaffe, "The early history of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine," Einstein Q. J. Biol. Med., 1996, 13. Available at http://www.aecom.yu.edu/ ooe/whoiswho/aecom%2Dhistory.html. Accessed 2 March 2001.
119. H. M. Zimmerman, "The naming of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine," Surg. Neurol., 1976, 6, 92; Sokoloff (n. 14), p. 513.
120. Kenneth M. Ludmerer, "The origins of Mount Sinai School of Medicine," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1990, 45, 469-89. For a general history of the Mount Sinai Hospital and the other Jewish hospitals of New York City, see Tina Levitan, Islands of Compassion: A History of the Jewish Hospital of New York (New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1964).
121. Kenneth M. Ludmerer, "The origins of Mount Sinai School of Medicine," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1990, 45, 469-89. For a general history of the Mount Sinai Hospital and the other Jewish hospitals of New York City, see Tina Levitan, Islands of Compassion: A History of the Jewish Hospital of New York (New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1964).
122. Turner to Lazaron, 16 March 1934, Lazaron Papers (n. 33).
123. Ludmerer (n. 88).
124. "Review of the Year 5690." Am. Jewish Year Book, 1930-1931, 32, p. 78.
125. "Medical school proposed for Jews," New York Times, 14 May 1932, p. 4.
126. "Medical school for Jews rejected." New York Times, 7 December 1931, p. 14, The report advised, however, that this was "not altogether traceable to anti-Jewish discrimination, as other factors are taken into account."
127. "Faith parley bans atheistic groups." New York Times, 31 August 1935, p. 11.
128. Nathan Ratnoff and Isidor W. Held, "Some problems of the Jewish medical student," Med. Leaves, 1940, 4, 146-51.
129. B. Fine, "Curb is demanded on bias in colleges," New York Times, 24 January 1946, p. 18.
130. B. Fine, "Bias in colleges against city youth charged in report," New York Times, 23 January 1946, p. 1.
131. Ibid.
132. "Discrimination charged," New York Times, 15 March 1946, p. 23. Wise's autobiography is Stephen Wise, Challenging Years: The Autobiography of Stephen Wise (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1949).
133. "Discrimination charged," New York Times, 15 March 1946, p. 23. Wise's autobiography is Stephen Wise, Challenging Years: The Autobiography of Stephen Wise (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1949).
134. S. S. Wise, Letter to the Editor. "Discrimination in Schools," New York Times, 26 March 1946, p. 30.
135. "Bias at Columbia denied at hearing," New York Times, 18 May 1946, p. 91.
136. "Case in court bias action on Columbia," New York Times, 26 March 1946, p. 30.
137. "Bias at Columbia denied at hearing" (n. 101).
138. "Unity ideal hailed by Mrs. Roosevelt," New York Times, 30 May 30, p. 18.
139. "Case in court bias action on Columbia" (n. 102).
140. Kaufman interview (n. 70); A.J. Rongy, "Haifa century of Jewish medical activities in New York City," Med. Leaves, 1937, 1, 151-63.
141. "Bias investigation in colleges urged," New York Times, 11 July 1946, p. 26; "O'Dwyer supports bias inquiry here," New York Times, 28 August 1946, p. 29.
142. "Bias investigation in colleges urged," New York Times, 11 July 1946, p. 26; "O'Dwyer supports bias inquiry here," New York Times, 28 August 1946, p. 29.
143. "City inquiry voted on bias in colleges," New York Times, 11 September 1946.
144. Sokoloff (n. 14), pp. 503, 510.
145. Quoted in "Race bias charged at Cornell school," New York Times, 23 October 1946, p. 24; see also Wise (n. 100).
146. "Race bias charged at Cornell school," (n. 110).
147. Sokoloff (n. 14), p. 511.
148. B. Fine, "State university asked at hearing," New York Times, 21 October 1947, p. 25.
149. Quoted in Jarcho (n. 1), p. 371.
150. "Study finds Jews face medical bar," New York Times, 6 June 1952, p. 19; "Jewish bias report is expected in fall," New York Times, 17 June 1952, p. 12.
151. "Study finds Jews face medical bar," New York Times, 6 June 1952, p. 19; "Jewish bias report is expected in fall," New York Times, 17 June 1952, p. 12.
152. "Hospital found lacking doctors," New York Times, 2 June 1957, p. 65.
153. Sokoloff (n. 14), p. 512.
154. Dinnerstein (n. 4), pp. 150-74.
155. Quoted in Frank K. Shuttleworth, "Discrimination in college opportunities and admissions," School and Society, 1951, 74, 398.
156. Jarcho (n. 1), p. 371.