Marriage in 1901 Canada: An ecological perspective

Journal of Family History

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 189-219

  Burke, Stacie D A ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035314835     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319900102600203     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. Michael Anderson, "Marriage Patterns in Victorian Britain: An Analysis Based on Registration District Data for England and Wales 1861," Journal of Family History 1 (1976): 55-78; quotation on pp. 56-57.
2. David Sven Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain, 1887-1930," Journal of Family History 16 (1991): 7-30. See also Ruth Dixon, "Cross-Cultural Variations in Age at Marriage and Proportions Never Marrying," Population Studies 25 (1971): 215-33.
3. David Sven Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain, 1887-1930," Journal of Family History 16 (1991): 7-30. See also Ruth Dixon, "Cross-Cultural Variations in Age at Marriage and Proportions Never Marrying," Population Studies 25 (1971): 215-33.
4. See, for example, David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Land, Population and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Pell County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Peter Gossage, Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999); Michael Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West: Family and Class in a Mid-Nineteenth Century City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990).
5. See, for example, David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Land, Population and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Pell County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Peter Gossage, Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999); Michael Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West: Family and Class in a Mid-Nineteenth Century City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990).
6. See, for example, David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Land, Population and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Pell County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Peter Gossage, Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999); Michael Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West: Family and Class in a Mid-Nineteenth Century City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990).
7. See, for example, David Gagan, Hopeful Travellers: Land, Population and Social Change in Mid-Victorian Pell County, Canada West (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981); Peter Gossage, Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999); Michael Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West: Family and Class in a Mid-Nineteenth Century City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990).
8. John Hajnal, "Age at Marriage and Proportions Marrying," Population Studies 7 (1953): 111-36.
9. Ellen M. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19 (1982): 311-25; William L. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility in Upper Canada, 1851: A Study of Land Availability, Urbanization and Birthplace," Canadian Studies in Population 13 (1986): 1-18; R. Marvin McInnis, "Women, Work and Childbearing: Ontario in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," Histoire sociale/Social History 24 (1991): 237-62; Walter Mertens, "Canadian Nuptiality Patterns: 1911-1961," Canadian Studies in Population 3 (1976): 57-71; Lorne Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility: Canada, 1871," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 11 (1974): 324-43.
10. Ellen M. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19 (1982): 311-25; William L. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility in Upper Canada, 1851: A Study of Land Availability, Urbanization and Birthplace," Canadian Studies in Population 13 (1986): 1-18; R. Marvin McInnis, "Women, Work and Childbearing: Ontario in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," Histoire sociale/Social History 24 (1991): 237-62; Walter Mertens, "Canadian Nuptiality Patterns: 1911-1961," Canadian Studies in Population 3 (1976): 57-71; Lorne Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility: Canada, 1871," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 11 (1974): 324-43.
11. Ellen M. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19 (1982): 311-25; William L. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility in Upper Canada, 1851: A Study of Land Availability, Urbanization and Birthplace," Canadian Studies in Population 13 (1986): 1-18; R. Marvin McInnis, "Women, Work and Childbearing: Ontario in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," Histoire sociale/Social History 24 (1991): 237-62; Walter Mertens, "Canadian Nuptiality Patterns: 1911-1961," Canadian Studies in Population 3 (1976): 57-71; Lorne Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility: Canada, 1871," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 11 (1974): 324-43.
12. Ellen M. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19 (1982): 311-25; William L. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility in Upper Canada, 1851: A Study of Land Availability, Urbanization and Birthplace," Canadian Studies in Population 13 (1986): 1-18; R. Marvin McInnis, "Women, Work and Childbearing: Ontario in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," Histoire sociale/Social History 24 (1991): 237-62; Walter Mertens, "Canadian Nuptiality Patterns: 1911-1961," Canadian Studies in Population 3 (1976): 57-71; Lorne Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility: Canada, 1871," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 11 (1974): 324-43.
13. Ellen M. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 19 (1982): 311-25; William L. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility in Upper Canada, 1851: A Study of Land Availability, Urbanization and Birthplace," Canadian Studies in Population 13 (1986): 1-18; R. Marvin McInnis, "Women, Work and Childbearing: Ontario in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," Histoire sociale/Social History 24 (1991): 237-62; Walter Mertens, "Canadian Nuptiality Patterns: 1911-1961," Canadian Studies in Population 3 (1976): 57-71; Lorne Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility: Canada, 1871," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 11 (1974): 324-43.
14. Madeline A. Richard, "Factors in the Marital Assimilation of Ethno-Religious Populations in Canada, 1871-1971," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 28 (1991): 99-111; Madeline A. Richard, Ethnic Groups and Marital Choices: Ethnic History and Marital Assimilation in Canada, 1871 and 1971 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1991).
15. Madeline A. Richard, "Factors in the Marital Assimilation of Ethno-Religious Populations in Canada, 1871-1971," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 28 (1991): 99-111; Madeline A. Richard, Ethnic Groups and Marital Choices: Ethnic History and Marital Assimilation in Canada, 1871 and 1971 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1991).
16. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada"; Ellen M. Gee, "Fertility and Marriage Patterns in Canada, 1851-1971" (Ph.D. diss., University of British Columbia, 1978).
17. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada"; Ellen M. Gee, "Fertility and Marriage Patterns in Canada, 1851-1971" (Ph.D. diss., University of British Columbia, 1978).
18. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility"; Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility."
19. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility"; Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility."
20. For a comprehensive description, see Eric W. Sager, Douglas K. Thompson, and Marc Trottier, The National Sample of the 1901 Census of Canada: User Guide, Version 1.0 (Victoria: University of Victoria, the Canadian Families Project, 1997); Peter Baskerville and Eric Sager, "Finding the Work Force in the 1901 Census of Canada," Histoire sociale/Social History 28 (1995): 521-39.
21. For a comprehensive description, see Eric W. Sager, Douglas K. Thompson, and Marc Trottier, The National Sample of the 1901 Census of Canada: User Guide, Version 1.0 (Victoria: University of Victoria, the Canadian Families Project, 1997); Peter Baskerville and Eric Sager, "Finding the Work Force in the 1901 Census of Canada," Histoire sociale/Social History 28 (1995): 521-39.
22. Sager et al., User Guide, 7.
23. Hereafter, for the sake of ease in discussion, they will be referred to collectively as provinces.
24. Including the Districts of Alberta, Assiniboia, Athabasca, and Saskatchewan.
25. Including the Districts of Franklin, Keewatin, Mackenzie, Ungava, and Yukon.
26. See Sager et al., User Guide.
27. Specifically, within each dwelling identification number: dwelling position (DWPOS), household position (HHDPOS), and husband-wife (SPLOC), mother-child (MOMLOC), father-child (POPLOC) relationships.
28. Included in Sager et al., User Guide (emphasis added).
29. Hajnal, "Age at Marriage."
30. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada."
31. See Susan Cotts Watkins, "Spinsters," Journal of Family History 9 (1984): 310-25.
32. Following the cartographic approach adopted by Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain."
33. Anderson, "Marriage Patterns in Victorian Britain"; Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility"; Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain"; Robert I. Woods and P.R.A. Hinde, "Nuptiality and Age at Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England," Journal of Family History 10 (1985): 119-44.
34. Anderson, "Marriage Patterns in Victorian Britain"; Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility"; Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain"; Robert I. Woods and P.R.A. Hinde, "Nuptiality and Age at Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England," Journal of Family History 10 (1985): 119-44.
35. Anderson, "Marriage Patterns in Victorian Britain"; Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility"; Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain"; Robert I. Woods and P.R.A. Hinde, "Nuptiality and Age at Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England," Journal of Family History 10 (1985): 119-44.
36. Anderson, "Marriage Patterns in Victorian Britain"; Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility"; Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain"; Robert I. Woods and P.R.A. Hinde, "Nuptiality and Age at Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England," Journal of Family History 10 (1985): 119-44.
37. For a comprehensive discussion, see James L. Huston, "Weighting, Confidence Intervals, and Ecological Regression," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 21 (1991): 631-54; Sharon Schwartz, "The Fallacy of the Ecological Fallacy: The Potential Misuse of a Concept and the Consequences," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 819-24; Mervyn Susser, "The Logic in Ecological: I. The Logic of Analysis," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 825-29; M. Tranmer and D. G. Steel, "Using Census Data to Investigate the Causes of the Ecological Fallacy," Environment and Planning A 30 (1998): 817-31.
38. For a comprehensive discussion, see James L. Huston, "Weighting, Confidence Intervals, and Ecological Regression," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 21 (1991): 631-54; Sharon Schwartz, "The Fallacy of the Ecological Fallacy: The Potential Misuse of a Concept and the Consequences," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 819-24; Mervyn Susser, "The Logic in Ecological: I. The Logic of Analysis," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 825-29; M. Tranmer and D. G. Steel, "Using Census Data to Investigate the Causes of the Ecological Fallacy," Environment and Planning A 30 (1998): 817-31.
39. For a comprehensive discussion, see James L. Huston, "Weighting, Confidence Intervals, and Ecological Regression," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 21 (1991): 631-54; Sharon Schwartz, "The Fallacy of the Ecological Fallacy: The Potential Misuse of a Concept and the Consequences," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 819-24; Mervyn Susser, "The Logic in Ecological: I. The Logic of Analysis," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 825-29; M. Tranmer and D. G. Steel, "Using Census Data to Investigate the Causes of the Ecological Fallacy," Environment and Planning A 30 (1998): 817-31.
40. For a comprehensive discussion, see James L. Huston, "Weighting, Confidence Intervals, and Ecological Regression," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 21 (1991): 631-54; Sharon Schwartz, "The Fallacy of the Ecological Fallacy: The Potential Misuse of a Concept and the Consequences," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 819-24; Mervyn Susser, "The Logic in Ecological: I. The Logic of Analysis," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 825-29; M. Tranmer and D. G. Steel, "Using Census Data to Investigate the Causes of the Ecological Fallacy," Environment and Planning A 30 (1998): 817-31.
41. Tranmer and Steel, "Using Census Data," 817.
42. Susser, "The Logic in Ecological," 826.
43. Schwartz, "The Fallacy of the Ecological Fallacy."
44. Huston, "Weighting, Confidence Intervals, and Ecological Regression." Neeleman argues that ecological studies that have not employed weighting "must be interpreted cautiously." J. Neeleman, "Regional Suicide Rates in the Netherlands: Does Religion Still Play a Role?" International Journal of Epidemiology 27 (1998): 466-72.
45. Huston, "Weighting, Confidence Intervals, and Ecological Regression." Neeleman argues that ecological studies that have not employed weighting "must be interpreted cautiously." J. Neeleman, "Regional Suicide Rates in the Netherlands: Does Religion Still Play a Role?" International Journal of Epidemiology 27 (1998): 466-72.
46. Reher, "Marriage Patterns in Spain," 20.
47. Ibid., 21.
48. See Peter Kennedy, A Guide to Econometrics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).
49. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada."
50. Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage.
51. There is a notable caveat to this measure: the possibility that either husband or wife converted to the religion of their spouse.
52. Ward, Courtship, Love and Marriage, 23-24.
53. See Jerrold H. Zar, Biostatistical Analysis, 3d ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996).
54. Eric W. Sager, "National Data on Working-Class Earnings: The 1901 Census of Canada," Historical Methods (forthcoming).
55. Of all farmers in Canada, this is a smaller group that self-identified as wage earners.
56. According to Kalbach and McVey, "This is not an entirely adequate measure as it does not account for variations in the age and sex of the household members, size of rooms, or local customs." Warren E. Kalbach and Wayne W. McVey, The Demographic Bases of Canadian Society, 2d ed. (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 1979), 364.
57. Ibid.
58. The URBPL variable was added to the Canadian Families Project sample by project geographer Dr. L. D. McCann.
59. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility."
60. Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage, 54.
61. Ibid., 60.
62. Ibid., 51.
63. Kenneth M. Sylvester, The Limits of Rural Capitalism: Family, Culture and Markets in Montcalm, Manitoba, 1870-1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000).
64. Nancy S. Landale, "Agricultural Opportunity and Marriage: The United States at the Turn of the Century," Demography 26 (1989): 203-18.
65. Marr, "Nuptiality, Total Fertility and Marital Fertility," 6.
66. See also Chad Gaffield and Lynne Marks, "Schooling and Social Structure," in Historical Atlas of Canada, vol. 3, Addressing the Twentieth Century 1891-1961, ed. Donald Kerr and Deryck W. Holdsworth (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990).
67. Bettina Bradbury, Working Families: Age, Gender, and Daily Survival in Industrializing Montreal (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1993).
68. Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage.
69. Tepperman realized the same relationship in his study of ethnicity, marriage, and fertility, noting "considerable overlap between the religious and ethnic composition of districts." Tepperman, "Ethnic Variations in Marriage and Fertility," 326.
70. Jean Dumas and Yves Péron, Marriage and Conjugal Life in Canada: Current Demographic Analysis (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1992), 16-17.
71. Government of Canada. Fourth Census of Canada 1901, vol. 4, Vital Statistics, School Attendance, Educational Status, Dwellings and Families, Institutions, Churches and Schools, Electoral Districts and Representation (Ottawa: S. E. Dawson, Printer, 1906).
72. Anderson, "Marriage Patterns in Victoria Britain," 56.
73. Alison L. Prentice, "The Feminization of Teaching," in The Neglected Majority, vol. 1, ed. Susan M. Trofimenkoff and Alison L. Prentice (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1977); Bruce Curtis, " 'Illicit' Sexuality and Public Education in Ontario, 1840-1907," Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'histoire de l'education 1 (1989): 73-94.
74. Alison L. Prentice, "The Feminization of Teaching," in The Neglected Majority, vol. 1, ed. Susan M. Trofimenkoff and Alison L. Prentice (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1977); Bruce Curtis, " 'Illicit' Sexuality and Public Education in Ontario, 1840-1907," Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'histoire de l'education 1 (1989): 73-94.
75. Steven Ruggles, Prolonged Connections: The Rise of the Extended Family in Nineteenth-Century England and America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 69.
76. Michael Anderson, "The Social Position of Spinsters in Mid-Victoria Britain," Journal of Family History 9 (1984): 377-93; Ruggles, Prolonged Connections.
77. Michael Anderson, "The Social Position of Spinsters in Mid-Victoria Britain," Journal of Family History 9 (1984): 377-93; Ruggles, Prolonged Connections.
78. Stephen J. Hornsby, "Time and Tide: The Transformation of Bear River, Nova Scotia," Northeast Folklore 31 (1996): 1-79.
79. Patricia Thornton, "Some Preliminary Comments on the Extent and Consequences of Out-Migration from the Atlantic Region, 1870-1920," in Merchant Shipping and Economic Development in Atlantic Canada, ed. Lewis R. Fischer and Eric W. Sager (St. John's: Maritime History Group, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1982), 187-218.
80. Patricia A. Thornton, "The Problem of Out-Migration from Atlantic Canada, 1871-1921: A New Look," Acadiensis 15 (1985): 3-34.
81. Ruggles, Prolonged Connections, 214.
82. Gee, "Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Canada."
83. Peter Baskerville and Eric W. Sager, Unwilling Idlers: The Urban Unemployed and Their Families in Late Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).
84. A problem that is further aggravated by the fact that, at the time of writing, all post-1901 manuscript census returns remain closed to researchers.