Lupines, manganese, and devil-sickness: An Anglo-Saxon medical response to epilepsy

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 75, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 91-101

  Dendle, Peter ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Anglo Saxon; Demon possession; Devil; Epilepsy; Lupine; Lupinus albus; Manganese; Middle Ages

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; MANGANESE;

ARTICLE; EPILEPSY; HISTORY; HUMAN; LEGUME; UNITED KINGDOM;

ANTICONVULSANTS; ENGLAND; EPILEPSY; FABACEAE; HISTORY, MEDIEVAL; HUMANS; MANGANESE;

EID: 0035292410     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2001.0009     Document Type: Review

References (79)

1. Twenty-nine recipes in the major Anglo-Saxon medical books refer to mental or behavioral disturbance of a clearly malefic or demonic character (feondseocum, brœcseocum, wedenheorte, yfelne leodrune, œlfsidenne, ungemynde, dysgunge, mona seoc, feondes costungum, nihtgengan, œlfadle. Lupine is the only herb prescribed for all of these conditions in one recipe or another; it is prescribed 18 times, well above the next most frequently mentioned herbs (bishopwort, 13 times; cropleek, 11; and fennel, 8). A more detailed list of these recipes and conditions will appear in a longer work on this topic. The major Anglo-Saxon medical books are: Bald's Leechbook, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England ed. Oswald Cockayne, 3 vols. (Weisbaden: Kraus, 1965; reprinted from Rernm Britannicarum Medii Aevi Scriptores [Rolls Series] 35, 1857), vol. 2, item 1: 63 (3 recipes), 1: 64 (3 recipes), and 1: 66 (2 recipes); Leechbook Book III, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, ed. Oswald Cockayne, vol. 2, item 40 (1 recipe), 41 (3 recipes), 54 (1 recipe),58 (1 recipe), 61 (2 recipes), 62 (3 recipes), 64 (2 recipes), and 67 (2 recipes); Herbarium of Apuleius, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, ed. Hubert Jan de Vriend (London: Oxford University Press, 1984), items 1, 20, 132, and 179 (1 prescription each); and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, item 10 (1 prescription).
2. Twenty-nine recipes in the major Anglo-Saxon medical books refer to mental or behavioral disturbance of a clearly malefic or demonic character (feondseocum, brœcseocum, wedenheorte, yfelne leodrune, œlfsidenne, ungemynde, dysgunge, mona seoc, feondes costungum, nihtgengan, œlfadle. Lupine is the only herb prescribed for all of these conditions in one recipe or another; it is prescribed 18 times, well above the next most frequently mentioned herbs (bishopwort, 13 times; cropleek, 11; and fennel, 8). A more detailed list of these recipes and conditions will appear in a longer work on this topic. The major Anglo-Saxon medical books are: Bald's Leechbook, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England ed. Oswald Cockayne, 3 vols. (Weisbaden: Kraus, 1965; reprinted from Rernm Britannicarum Medii Aevi Scriptores [Rolls Series] 35, 1857), vol. 2, item 1: 63 (3 recipes), 1: 64 (3 recipes), and 1: 66 (2 recipes); Leechbook Book III, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, ed. Oswald Cockayne, vol. 2, item 40 (1 recipe), 41 (3 recipes), 54 (1 recipe),58 (1 recipe), 61 (2 recipes), 62 (3 recipes), 64 (2 recipes), and 67 (2 recipes); Herbarium of Apuleius, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, ed. Hubert Jan de Vriend (London: Oxford University Press, 1984), items 1, 20, 132, and 179 (1 prescription each); and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, item 10 (1 prescription).
3. Twenty-nine recipes in the major Anglo-Saxon medical books refer to mental or behavioral disturbance of a clearly malefic or demonic character (feondseocum, brœcseocum, wedenheorte, yfelne leodrune, œlfsidenne, ungemynde, dysgunge, mona seoc, feondes costungum, nihtgengan, œlfadle. Lupine is the only herb prescribed for all of these conditions in one recipe or another; it is prescribed 18 times, well above the next most frequently mentioned herbs (bishopwort, 13 times; cropleek, 11; and fennel, 8). A more detailed list of these recipes and conditions will appear in a longer work on this topic. The major Anglo-Saxon medical books are: Bald's Leechbook, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England ed. Oswald Cockayne, 3 vols. (Weisbaden: Kraus, 1965; reprinted from Rernm Britannicarum Medii Aevi Scriptores [Rolls Series] 35, 1857), vol. 2, item 1: 63 (3 recipes), 1: 64 (3 recipes), and 1: 66 (2 recipes); Leechbook Book III, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, ed. Oswald Cockayne, vol. 2, item 40 (1 recipe), 41 (3 recipes), 54 (1 recipe),58 (1 recipe), 61 (2 recipes), 62 (3 recipes), 64 (2 recipes), and 67 (2 recipes); Herbarium of Apuleius, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, ed. Hubert Jan de Vriend (London: Oxford University Press, 1984), items 1, 20, 132, and 179 (1 prescription each); and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, item 10 (1 prescription).
4. Twenty-nine recipes in the major Anglo-Saxon medical books refer to mental or behavioral disturbance of a clearly malefic or demonic character (feondseocum, brœcseocum, wedenheorte, yfelne leodrune, œlfsidenne, ungemynde, dysgunge, mona seoc, feondes costungum, nihtgengan, œlfadle. Lupine is the only herb prescribed for all of these conditions in one recipe or another; it is prescribed 18 times, well above the next most frequently mentioned herbs (bishopwort, 13 times; cropleek, 11; and fennel, 8). A more detailed list of these recipes and conditions will appear in a longer work on this topic. The major Anglo-Saxon medical books are: Bald's Leechbook, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England ed. Oswald Cockayne, 3 vols. (Weisbaden: Kraus, 1965; reprinted from Rernm Britannicarum Medii Aevi Scriptores [Rolls Series] 35, 1857), vol. 2, item 1: 63 (3 recipes), 1: 64 (3 recipes), and 1: 66 (2 recipes); Leechbook Book III, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, ed. Oswald Cockayne, vol. 2, item 40 (1 recipe), 41 (3 recipes), 54 (1 recipe),58 (1 recipe), 61 (2 recipes), 62 (3 recipes), 64 (2 recipes), and 67 (2 recipes); Herbarium of Apuleius, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, ed. Hubert Jan de Vriend (London: Oxford University Press, 1984), items 1, 20, 132, and 179 (1 prescription each); and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, item 10 (1 prescription).
5. Twenty-nine recipes in the major Anglo-Saxon medical books refer to mental or behavioral disturbance of a clearly malefic or demonic character (feondseocum, brœcseocum, wedenheorte, yfelne leodrune, œlfsidenne, ungemynde, dysgunge, mona seoc, feondes costungum, nihtgengan, œlfadle. Lupine is the only herb prescribed for all of these conditions in one recipe or another; it is prescribed 18 times, well above the next most frequently mentioned herbs (bishopwort, 13 times; cropleek, 11; and fennel, 8). A more detailed list of these recipes and conditions will appear in a longer work on this topic. The major Anglo-Saxon medical books are: Bald's Leechbook, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England ed. Oswald Cockayne, 3 vols. (Weisbaden: Kraus, 1965; reprinted from Rernm Britannicarum Medii Aevi Scriptores [Rolls Series] 35, 1857), vol. 2, item 1: 63 (3 recipes), 1: 64 (3 recipes), and 1: 66 (2 recipes); Leechbook Book III, in Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, ed. Oswald Cockayne, vol. 2, item 40 (1 recipe), 41 (3 recipes), 54 (1 recipe),58 (1 recipe), 61 (2 recipes), 62 (3 recipes), 64 (2 recipes), and 67 (2 recipes); Herbarium of Apuleius, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, ed. Hubert Jan de Vriend (London: Oxford University Press, 1984), items 1, 20, 132, and 179 (1 prescription each); and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, in The Old English Herbarium and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, item 10 (1 prescription).
6. For a succinct history of the changing attitudes of scholars, see M. L. Cameron, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), esp. pp. 2-4.
7. C. H. Talbot, "Some Notes on Anglo-Saxon Medicine," Med. Hist., 1965, 9: 156-69; idem, Medicine in Medieval England (London: Oldbourne, 1967); Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," Isis, 1979, 70: 250-69; M. L. Cameron, "Bald's Leechbook: Its Sources and Their Use in Its Compilation," Anglo-Saxon England, 1983, 12: 153-82; idem, "Bald's Leechbook and Cultural Interactions in Anglo-Saxon England," ibid., 1990, 19:5-12; idem, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2).
8. C. H. Talbot, "Some Notes on Anglo-Saxon Medicine," Med. Hist., 1965, 9: 156-69; idem, Medicine in Medieval England (London: Oldbourne, 1967); Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," Isis, 1979, 70: 250-69; M. L. Cameron, "Bald's Leechbook: Its Sources and Their Use in Its Compilation," Anglo-Saxon England, 1983, 12: 153-82; idem, "Bald's Leechbook and Cultural Interactions in Anglo-Saxon England," ibid., 1990, 19:5-12; idem, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2).
9. C. H. Talbot, "Some Notes on Anglo-Saxon Medicine," Med. Hist., 1965, 9: 156-69; idem, Medicine in Medieval England (London: Oldbourne, 1967); Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," Isis, 1979, 70: 250-69; M. L. Cameron, "Bald's Leechbook: Its Sources and Their Use in Its Compilation," Anglo-Saxon England, 1983, 12: 153-82; idem, "Bald's Leechbook and Cultural Interactions in Anglo-Saxon England," ibid., 1990, 19:5-12; idem, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2).
10. C. H. Talbot, "Some Notes on Anglo-Saxon Medicine," Med. Hist., 1965, 9: 156-69; idem, Medicine in Medieval England (London: Oldbourne, 1967); Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," Isis, 1979, 70: 250-69; M. L. Cameron, "Bald's Leechbook: Its Sources and Their Use in Its Compilation," Anglo-Saxon England, 1983, 12: 153-82; idem, "Bald's Leechbook and Cultural Interactions in Anglo-Saxon England," ibid., 1990, 19:5-12; idem, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2).
11. C. H. Talbot, "Some Notes on Anglo-Saxon Medicine," Med. Hist., 1965, 9: 156-69; idem, Medicine in Medieval England (London: Oldbourne, 1967); Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," Isis, 1979, 70: 250-69; M. L. Cameron, "Bald's Leechbook: Its Sources and Their Use in Its Compilation," Anglo-Saxon England, 1983, 12: 153-82; idem, "Bald's Leechbook and Cultural Interactions in Anglo-Saxon England," ibid., 1990, 19:5-12; idem, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2).
12. C. H. Talbot, "Some Notes on Anglo-Saxon Medicine," Med. Hist., 1965, 9: 156-69; idem, Medicine in Medieval England (London: Oldbourne, 1967); Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," Isis, 1979, 70: 250-69; M. L. Cameron, "Bald's Leechbook: Its Sources and Their Use in Its Compilation," Anglo-Saxon England, 1983, 12: 153-82; idem, "Bald's Leechbook and Cultural Interactions in Anglo-Saxon England," ibid., 1990, 19:5-12; idem, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2).
13. Cameron, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2), p. 129.
14. J. H. G. Grattan and Charles Singer, Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 159. Cockayne also identifies elehtre as Lupinus albus: Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft (n. 1), vol. 3. On the other hand, The Dictionary of Old English, Antonette di Paolo Healey, gen. ed. (Toronto: Pontifical Institute for Medieval Studies, 1996); and Peter Bierbaumer, Der botanische Wortschatz des Altenglischen, 3 vols. (Bern: Herbert Lang; Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975, 1976, 1979), refrain from specifying anything more precise than "lupine." The name elehtre, from Latin electrum ("amber"), may derive from the yellow flowers of the common species Lupinus luteus.
15. J. H. G. Grattan and Charles Singer, Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 159. Cockayne also identifies elehtre as Lupinus albus: Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft (n. 1), vol. 3. On the other hand, The Dictionary of Old English, Antonette di Paolo Healey, gen. ed. (Toronto: Pontifical Institute for Medieval Studies, 1996); and Peter Bierbaumer, Der botanische Wortschatz des Altenglischen, 3 vols. (Bern: Herbert Lang; Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975, 1976, 1979), refrain from specifying anything more precise than "lupine." The name elehtre, from Latin electrum ("amber"), may derive from the yellow flowers of the common species Lupinus luteus.
16. J. H. G. Grattan and Charles Singer, Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 159. Cockayne also identifies elehtre as Lupinus albus: Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft (n. 1), vol. 3. On the other hand, The Dictionary of Old English, Antonette di Paolo Healey, gen. ed. (Toronto: Pontifical Institute for Medieval Studies, 1996); and Peter Bierbaumer, Der botanische Wortschatz des Altenglischen, 3 vols. (Bern: Herbert Lang; Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975, 1976, 1979), refrain from specifying anything more precise than "lupine." The name elehtre, from Latin electrum ("amber"), may derive from the yellow flowers of the common species Lupinus luteus.
17. J. H. G. Grattan and Charles Singer, Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 159. Cockayne also identifies elehtre as Lupinus albus: Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft (n. 1), vol. 3. On the other hand, The Dictionary of Old English, Antonette di Paolo Healey, gen. ed. (Toronto: Pontifical Institute for Medieval Studies, 1996); and Peter Bierbaumer, Der botanische Wortschatz des Altenglischen, 3 vols. (Bern: Herbert Lang; Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975, 1976, 1979), refrain from specifying anything more precise than "lupine." The name elehtre, from Latin electrum ("amber"), may derive from the yellow flowers of the common species Lupinus luteus.
18. Digna Ballester, Enrique Yáñez, Rubén Garcia, et al., "Chemical Composition, Nutritive Value, and Toxicological Evaluation of Two Species of Sweet Lupine (Lupinus albus and Lupinus luteus)," J. Agric. & Food Chem., 1980, 28: 402-5, on p. 404; Enrique Yáñez, Daniza Ivanovic, D. F. Owen, and Digna Ballester, "Chemical and Nutritional Evaluation of Sweet Lupines," Ann. Nutrit. & Metab., 1983, 27: 513-20, on p. 513.
19. Digna Ballester, Enrique Yáñez, Rubén Garcia, et al., "Chemical Composition, Nutritive Value, and Toxicological Evaluation of Two Species of Sweet Lupine (Lupinus albus and Lupinus luteus)," J. Agric. & Food Chem., 1980, 28: 402-5, on p. 404; Enrique Yáñez, Daniza Ivanovic, D. F. Owen, and Digna Ballester, "Chemical and Nutritional Evaluation of Sweet Lupines," Ann. Nutrit. & Metab., 1983, 27: 513-20, on p. 513.
20. Grattan and Singer, Anglo-Saxon Magic (n. 5), p. 159. Singer believes the Romans may have introduced them originally. Today Lupinus albus grows wildly in the south of England, not only in waste places, but also at docks - a location consistent with importation: Clive A. Stace, New Flora of the British Isles, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 432.
21. Grattan and Singer, Anglo-Saxon Magic (n. 5), p. 159. Singer believes the Romans may have introduced them originally. Today Lupinus albus grows wildly in the south of England, not only in waste places, but also at docks - a location consistent with importation: Clive A. Stace, New Flora of the British Isles, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 432.
22. Book 1, items 62-66; book 3, items 54, 58, 61-68. For these sections specifically, see Wilfrid Bonser, The Medical Background of Anglo-Saxon England: A Study in History, Psychology, and Folklore (London: Wellcome Historical Medical Library, 1963), pp. 163-64; Karen Louise Jolly, Popular Religion in Late Saxon England: Elf Charms in Context (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 145-67. Quotations from Bald's Leechbook and from Leechbook 3 refer to vol. 2 of Cockayne, Leechdoms (n. 1).
23. Book 1, items 62-66; book 3, items 54, 58, 61-68. For these sections specifically, see Wilfrid Bonser, The Medical Background of Anglo-Saxon England: A Study in History, Psychology, and Folklore (London: Wellcome Historical Medical Library, 1963), pp. 163-64; Karen Louise Jolly, Popular Religion in Late Saxon England: Elf Charms in Context (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 145-67. Quotations from Bald's Leechbook and from Leechbook 3 refer to vol. 2 of Cockayne, Leechdoms (n. 1).
24. Book 1, items 62-66; book 3, items 54, 58, 61-68. For these sections specifically, see Wilfrid Bonser, The Medical Background of Anglo-Saxon England: A Study in History, Psychology, and Folklore (London: Wellcome Historical Medical Library, 1963), pp. 163-64; Karen Louise Jolly, Popular Religion in Late Saxon England: Elf Charms in Context (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 145-67. Quotations from Bald's Leechbook and from Leechbook 3 refer to vol. 2 of Cockayne, Leechdoms (n. 1).
25. (1) "wip feond seocum men, ponne deoful pone monnan feoe oooe hine innan gewealde mid adle"; (2) "wip feondseocum men"; (3) "wip bræcseocum men"; (4) "Wio wedenheorte": Cockayne, Leechdoms (n. 1), pp. 136-38.
26. J. V. Kinnier Wilson and E. H. Reynolds, "Translation and Analysis of a Cuneiform Text Forming Part of a Babylonian Treatise on Epilepsy," Med. Hist., 1990, 34: 185-98, on p. 189. The translators date the original to the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina, between 1067 and 1046 B.C.E.
27. Matthew 17.14-18; Mark 9.17-27; Luke 9.38-42. The Vulgate diagnoses the patient as lunaticus (Matthew), and calls the demon that comes out of the boy daemonium (Matthew, Luke) and Spiritus inmundus (Mark, Luke).
28. Owsei Temkin, The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), pp. 4, 96.
29. Bonser, Medical Background (n. 8), p. 257.
30. "Subito a diabolo arreptus clamare, dentibus frendere, spumare et diuersis motibus coepit membra torquere": Bertram Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors, eds., Bede's Ecclesiastical History ofthe English People (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. 248.
31. See, for instance, Jerome Engel, Seizures and Epilepsy (Philadelphia: Davis, 1989);
32. H. Gastaut and R. Broughton, Epileptic Seizures: Clinical and Electrographic Features, Diagnosis, and Treatment (Springfield, III.: Thomas, 1972);
33. Ronald P. Lesser, The Diagnosis and Management of Seizure Disorders (New York: Demos, 1991);
34. Steven C. Schachter and Donald L. Schomer, The Comprehensive Evaluation and Treatment of Epilepsy: A Practical Guide (San Diego: Academic Press, 1997).
35. T. L. Nucifora and M. H. Malone, "Comparative Psychopharmacologic Investigation of Cryogenine, Certain Non-Steroid Anti-Inflammatory Compounds, Lupine Alkaloids and Cyproheptadine," Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Thérapie, 1971, 191: 345-56.
36. J. Pothier, S.-L. Cheav, N. Galand, et al., "A Comparative Study of the Effects of Sparteine, Lupanine, and Lupin Extract on the Central Nervous System of the Mouse," J. Pharm. & Pharmacol., 1998, 50: 949-54, esp. pp. 952-53.
37. R. Gross, J. Auslitz, P. Schramel, and H. D. Payer, "Concentrations of Lead, Cadmium, Mercury and Other Elements in Seeds of Lupinus mutabilis and Other Legumes," J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. & Oncol., 1987, 7: 59-65.
38. Lucille S. Hurley, Dorothy E. Woolley, Fred Rosenthal, and Paola S. Timiras, "Influence of Manganese on Susceptibility of Rats to Convulsions," Amer. J. Physiol., 1963, 204: 493-96.
39. Naohide Inoue, Yasuo Tsukada, and André Barbeau, "Effects of Manganese, Calcium, Magnesium and Lithium on the Ouabain-Induced Seizure," Folia Psychiatrica et Neurologica Japonica, 1977, 31: 645-51.
40. Paul Papavasiliou and Samuel T. Miller, "Generalized Seizures Alter the Cerebral and Peripheral Metabolism of Essential Metals in Mice," Exp. Neurol., 1983, 82: 223-36.
41. George F. Carl,J. W. Critchfield,J. L. Thompson, et al., "Genetically Epilepsy-Prone Rats Are Characterized by Altered Tissue Trace Element Concentrations," Epilepsia, 1990, 31: 247-52; George F. Carl, L. K. Blackwell, F. C. Barnett, et al., "Manganese and Epilepsy: Brain Glutamine Synthetase and Liver Arginase Activities in Genetically Epilepsy Prone and Chronically Seizured Rats," Epilepsia, 1993, 34: 441-46.
42. George F. Carl,J. W. Critchfield,J. L. Thompson, et al., "Genetically Epilepsy-Prone Rats Are Characterized by Altered Tissue Trace Element Concentrations," Epilepsia, 1990, 31: 247-52; George F. Carl, L. K. Blackwell, F. C. Barnett, et al., "Manganese and Epilepsy: Brain Glutamine Synthetase and Liver Arginase Activities in Genetically Epilepsy Prone and Chronically Seizured Rats," Epilepsia, 1993, 34: 441-46.
43. C. Dupont, E. R. Harpur, S. C. Skoryna, and Y. Tanaka, "Blood Manganese Levels in Relation to Convulsive Disorders in Children," Clin. Biochem., 1977, 10 (2): P11; Y. Tanaka, "Manganese: Its Possible Significance in Childhood Nutrition in Relation to Convulsive Disorders," J. Amer. Coll. Nutr., 1982, 1: 113.
44. C. Dupont, E. R. Harpur, S. C. Skoryna, and Y. Tanaka, "Blood Manganese Levels in Relation to Convulsive Disorders in Children," Clin. Biochem., 1977, 10 (2): P11; Y. Tanaka, "Manganese: Its Possible Significance in Childhood Nutrition in Relation to Convulsive Disorders," J. Amer. Coll. Nutr., 1982, 1: 113.
45. Paul Papavasiliou, Henn Kutt, Samuel Miller, et al., "Seizure Disorders and Trace Metals: Manganese Tissue Levels in Treated Epileptics," Neurology, 1979, 29: 1466-73.
46. M. Akram, C. Sullivan, G. Mack, and N. Buchanan, "What Is the Clinical Significance of Reduced Manganese and Zinc Levels in Treated Epileptic Patients?" Med. J. Australia, 1989, 151: 113.
47. G. F. Carl, C. L. Keen, B. B. Gallagher, et al., "Association of Low Blood Manganese Concentrations with Epilepsy," Neurology, 1986, 36: 1584-87, on p. 1585. See also D. L. W. Davidson and N. Ward, "Abnormal Aluminium, Cobalt, Manganese, Strontium and Zinc Concentrations in Untreated Epilepsy," Epilepsy Res., 1988, 2: 323-30.
48. G. F. Carl, C. L. Keen, B. B. Gallagher, et al., "Association of Low Blood Manganese Concentrations with Epilepsy," Neurology, 1986, 36: 1584-87, on p. 1585. See also D. L. W. Davidson and N. Ward, "Abnormal Aluminium, Cobalt, Manganese, Strontium and Zinc Concentrations in Untreated Epilepsy," Epilepsy Res., 1988, 2: 323-30.
49. Papavasiliou and Miller, "Generalized Seizures" (n. 21), p. 233.
50. C. L. Dupont and Y. Tanaka, "Blood Manganese Levels in Children with Convulsive Disorder," Biochem. Med., 1985, 33: 246-55, on p. 253.
51. Hurley et al., "Influence of Manganese" (n. 19); Inoue et al., "Effects of Manganese" (n. 20).
52. Hurley et al., "Influence of Manganese" (n. 19); Inoue et al., "Effects of Manganese" (n. 20).
53. The manganese levels cited in this paragraph are from the USDA database available on-line (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR12/sr12.html) from the Nutrient Data Laboratory of the Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Riverdale, Md.
54. C. Bales, J. Freeland-Graves, P.-H. Lin, et al., "Plasma Uptake of Manganese: Influence of Dietary Factors," in Nutritional Bioavailability of Manganese, ed. Constance Kies, ACS Symposium Series 354 (Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1987), pp. 112-22.
55. Constance Kies, K. D. Aldrich, J. Johnson, et al., "Manganese Availability for Humans: Effect of Selected Dietary Factors," in ibid., pp. 136-45.
56. Ann Hagen, A Second Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food and Drink: Production and Distribution (Huckwold-cum-Wilton, Norfolk: Anglo-Saxon Books, 1995), p. 77.
57. Cameron, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2), pp. 101-4; Hagen, Second Handbook (n. 33), pp. 42, 54, 177-85; Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies" (n. 3).
58. Cameron, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2), pp. 101-4; Hagen, Second Handbook (n. 33), pp. 42, 54, 177-85; Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies" (n. 3).
59. Cameron, Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2), pp. 101-4; Hagen, Second Handbook (n. 33), pp. 42, 54, 177-85; Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies" (n. 3).
60. Dupont and Tanaka, "Blood Manganese Levels" (n. 28), p. 254; Kies et al., "Manganese Availability" (n. 32), p. 144.
61. Dupont and Tanaka, "Blood Manganese Levels" (n. 28), p. 254; Kies et al., "Manganese Availability" (n. 32), p. 144.
62. 2+: Olivier Rabin, Lajos Hegedus, Jean-Marie Bourre, and Quentin R. Smith, "Rapid Brain Uptake of Manganese (II) across the Blood-Brain Barrier," J. Neurochem., 1993, 61: 509-17.
63. 2+: Olivier Rabin, Lajos Hegedus, Jean-Marie Bourre, and Quentin R. Smith, "Rapid Brain Uptake of Manganese (II) across the Blood-Brain Barrier," J. Neurochem., 1993, 61: 509-17.
64. 2+: Olivier Rabin, Lajos Hegedus, Jean-Marie Bourre, and Quentin R. Smith, "Rapid Brain Uptake of Manganese (II) across the Blood-Brain Barrier," J. Neurochem., 1993, 61: 509-17.
65. 2+: Olivier Rabin, Lajos Hegedus, Jean-Marie Bourre, and Quentin R. Smith, "Rapid Brain Uptake of Manganese (II) across the Blood-Brain Barrier," J. Neurochem., 1993, 61: 509-17.
66. 2+: Olivier Rabin, Lajos Hegedus, Jean-Marie Bourre, and Quentin R. Smith, "Rapid Brain Uptake of Manganese (II) across the Blood-Brain Barrier," J. Neurochem., 1993, 61: 509-17.
67. 2+: Olivier Rabin, Lajos Hegedus, Jean-Marie Bourre, and Quentin R. Smith, "Rapid Brain Uptake of Manganese (II) across the Blood-Brain Barrier," J. Neurochem., 1993, 61: 509-17.
68. 2+: Olivier Rabin, Lajos Hegedus, Jean-Marie Bourre, and Quentin R. Smith, "Rapid Brain Uptake of Manganese (II) across the Blood-Brain Barrier," J. Neurochem., 1993, 61: 509-17.
69. Cameron discusses iron deficiency, especially as a result of malaria, in Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2), pp. 16-17. Hagen notes that cooking acidic foods in iron cauldrons (which were probably less prestigious than brass or copper ones) increases the food's iron content by a factor of 30 to 100: Ann Hagen, A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food: Processing and Consumption (Pinner, Norfolk: Anglo-Saxon Books, 1992), p. 56; and see pp. 149-50.
70. Cameron discusses iron deficiency, especially as a result of malaria, in Anglo-Saxon Medicine (n. 2), pp. 16-17. Hagen notes that cooking acidic foods in iron cauldrons (which were probably less prestigious than brass or copper ones) increases the food's iron content by a factor of 30 to 100: Ann Hagen, A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food: Processing and Consumption (Pinner, Norfolk: Anglo-Saxon Books, 1992), p. 56; and see pp. 149-50.
71. Frank Grube argues that Anglo-Saxons relied primarily on meat and dairy products, enjoying only a limited range and quantity of vegetable products, excepting cereals and beans: Frank Gruber, "Cereal Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," Philol. Quart., 1934, 13: 140-58; idem, "Meat Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," J. Engl & Germ. Philol, 1935, 34: 511-29; idem, "Old English Vegetable Terms," Northwest Missouri State Coll. Stud., 1963, 27: 1-30. Hagen concludes that the standard Anglo-Saxon meal was bread accompanying a meat pottage or stew of some sort: Handbook (n. 37), pp. 70-72, 146-47. She notes elsewhere that the reliance on cereals increased by the later period: Second Handbook (n. 33), p. 29.
72. Frank Grube argues that Anglo-Saxons relied primarily on meat and dairy products, enjoying only a limited range and quantity of vegetable products, excepting cereals and beans: Frank Gruber, "Cereal Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," Philol. Quart., 1934, 13: 140-58; idem, "Meat Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," J. Engl & Germ. Philol, 1935, 34: 511-29; idem, "Old English Vegetable Terms," Northwest Missouri State Coll. Stud., 1963, 27: 1-30. Hagen concludes that the standard Anglo-Saxon meal was bread accompanying a meat pottage or stew of some sort: Handbook (n. 37), pp. 70-72, 146-47. She notes elsewhere that the reliance on cereals increased by the later period: Second Handbook (n. 33), p. 29.
73. Frank Grube argues that Anglo-Saxons relied primarily on meat and dairy products, enjoying only a limited range and quantity of vegetable products, excepting cereals and beans: Frank Gruber, "Cereal Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," Philol. Quart., 1934, 13: 140-58; idem, "Meat Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," J. Engl & Germ. Philol, 1935, 34: 511-29; idem, "Old English Vegetable Terms," Northwest Missouri State Coll. Stud., 1963, 27: 1-30. Hagen concludes that the standard Anglo-Saxon meal was bread accompanying a meat pottage or stew of some sort: Handbook (n. 37), pp. 70-72, 146-47. She notes elsewhere that the reliance on cereals increased by the later period: Second Handbook (n. 33), p. 29.
74. Frank Grube argues that Anglo-Saxons relied primarily on meat and dairy products, enjoying only a limited range and quantity of vegetable products, excepting cereals and beans: Frank Gruber, "Cereal Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," Philol. Quart., 1934, 13: 140-58; idem, "Meat Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," J. Engl & Germ. Philol, 1935, 34: 511-29; idem, "Old English Vegetable Terms," Northwest Missouri State Coll. Stud., 1963, 27: 1-30. Hagen concludes that the standard Anglo-Saxon meal was bread accompanying a meat pottage or stew of some sort: Handbook (n. 37), pp. 70-72, 146-47. She notes elsewhere that the reliance on cereals increased by the later period: Second Handbook (n. 33), p. 29.
75. Frank Grube argues that Anglo-Saxons relied primarily on meat and dairy products, enjoying only a limited range and quantity of vegetable products, excepting cereals and beans: Frank Gruber, "Cereal Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," Philol. Quart., 1934, 13: 140-58; idem, "Meat Foods of the Anglo-Saxons," J. Engl & Germ. Philol, 1935, 34: 511-29; idem, "Old English Vegetable Terms," Northwest Missouri State Coll. Stud., 1963, 27: 1-30. Hagen concludes that the standard Anglo-Saxon meal was bread accompanying a meat pottage or stew of some sort: Handbook (n. 37), pp. 70-72, 146-47. She notes elsewhere that the reliance on cereals increased by the later period: Second Handbook (n. 33), p. 29.
76. Hagen, Handbook (n. 37), pp. 24-32, 149.
77. Hubert Lamb, "Climate from 1000 BC to 1000 AD," in The Environment of Man: The Iron Age to the Anglo-Saxon Period, ed. Martin Jones and Geoffrey Dimbleby, British Archaeology Reports, British Series, vol. 87 (Oxford: British Archaeology Reports, 1981), pp. 53-65, on pp. 60-61.
78. Keen, Lōnnerdal, and Hurley, "Manganese" (n. 36), p. 92.
79. Francis Adams briefly surveys a variety of early authors on lupines in The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta, 3 vols. (London: Sydenham Society, 1847), 3: 136.