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Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 69-93

From confrontation to collaboration: Collegial accountability and the expanding role of pharmacists in the management of chronic pain

(1)  Brushwood, David B a  

a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT;

EID: 0035288964     PISSN: 10731105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720x.2001.tb00040.x     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (24)

References (68)
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    • 85008993335 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Workman, 990 F. Supp. 473, 475 (S.D.W.V. 1998)
    • United States v. Workman, 990 F. Supp. 473, 475 (S.D.W.V. 1998).
  • 2
    • 0032197220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Collaborative Practice Agreements between Pharmacists and Physicians: Some forward-thinking pharmacists are taking what may be the next logical step in the evolution of pharmaceutical care
    • See L.A. Ferro et al., "Collaborative Practice Agreements Between Pharmacists and Physicians: Some forward-thinking pharmacists are taking what may be the next logical step in the evolution of pharmaceutical care," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 38 (1998): 655-666
    • (1998) Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association , vol.38 , pp. 655-666
    • Ferro, L.A.1
  • 3
    • 0034659347 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • More States Join Movement to Pharmacist Participation in Drug Therapy Management
    • (noting the lack of a clear consensus on what is permitted under collaborative practice agreements, but suggesting that, as a general rule, collaborative practice agreements between pharmacists and physicians permit the pharmacist to make specific types of changes in the drug therapy of a specific patient or group of patients, following a written protocol approved by the pharmacist and the physician). Arizona and Georgia recently became the 26th and 27th states to authorize collaborative practice under protocol by pharmacists. See "More States Join Movement to Pharmacist Participation in Drug Therapy Management," American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 57 (2000): 1116-1117. The other states in which drug therapy management by pharmacists is currently authorized are Arkansas, California, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, and Washington.
    • (2000) American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy , vol.57 , pp. 1116-1117
  • 4
    • 0031432466 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Therapeutic Outcomes Monitoring: Application of Pharmaceutical Care Guidelines to Community Pharmacy
    • See T.J. Grainger-Rousseau et al., "Therapeutic Outcomes Monitoring: Application of Pharmaceutical Care Guidelines to Community Pharmacy," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 37 (1997): 647-661 (concluding that pharmacists can successfully implement drug therapy management in their practices, overcoming many obstacles to doing so). See also L.R. Borgsdorf, J.S. Miano, and K.K. Knapp, "Pharmacist-Managed Medication Review in a Managed Care System," American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, 51 (1994): 772-777 (describing a pharmacist-managed medication review program that produced a savings of $644 per patient per year due to reduction in the number of unscheduled physician visits, urgent care visits, emergency room visits, and hospital days); V.M. Wilt et at., "Outcome Analysis of a Pharmacist-Managed Anticoagulation Service," Pharmacotherapy, 15 (1995): 732-739 (describing a potential cost avoidance of $4,072.68 per person per year in a family practice setting when pharmacists manage drug therapy for improved outcomes of patients receiving warfarin therapy).
    • (1997) Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association , vol.37 , pp. 647-661
    • Grainger-Rousseau, T.J.1
  • 5
    • 0028350134 scopus 로고
    • Pharmacist-Managed Medication Review in a Managed Care System
    • See T.J. Grainger-Rousseau et al., "Therapeutic Outcomes Monitoring: Application of Pharmaceutical Care Guidelines to Community Pharmacy," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 37 (1997): 647-661 (concluding that pharmacists can successfully implement drug therapy management in their practices, overcoming many obstacles to doing so). See also L.R. Borgsdorf, J.S. Miano, and K.K. Knapp, "Pharmacist-Managed Medication Review in a Managed Care System," American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, 51 (1994): 772-777 (describing a pharmacist-managed medication review program that produced a savings of $644 per patient per year due to reduction in the number of unscheduled physician visits, urgent care visits, emergency room visits, and hospital days); V.M. Wilt et at., "Outcome Analysis of a Pharmacist-Managed Anticoagulation Service," Pharmacotherapy, 15 (1995): 732-739 (describing a potential cost avoidance of $4,072.68 per person per year in a family practice setting when pharmacists manage drug therapy for improved outcomes of patients receiving warfarin therapy).
    • (1994) American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy , vol.51 , pp. 772-777
    • Borgsdorf, L.R.1    Miano, J.S.2    Knapp, K.K.3
  • 6
    • 0028808320 scopus 로고
    • Outcome Analysis of a Pharmacist-Managed Anticoagulation Service
    • See T.J. Grainger-Rousseau et al., "Therapeutic Outcomes Monitoring: Application of Pharmaceutical Care Guidelines to Community Pharmacy," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 37 (1997): 647-661 (concluding that pharmacists can successfully implement drug therapy management in their practices, overcoming many obstacles to doing so). See also L.R. Borgsdorf, J.S. Miano, and K.K. Knapp, "Pharmacist-Managed Medication Review in a Managed Care System," American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, 51 (1994): 772-777 (describing a pharmacist-managed medication review program that produced a savings of $644 per patient per year due to reduction in the number of unscheduled physician visits, urgent care visits, emergency room visits, and hospital days); V.M. Wilt et at., "Outcome Analysis of a Pharmacist-Managed Anticoagulation Service," Pharmacotherapy, 15 (1995): 732-739 (describing a potential cost avoidance of $4,072.68 per person per year in a family practice setting when pharmacists manage drug therapy for improved outcomes of patients receiving warfarin therapy).
    • (1995) Pharmacotherapy , vol.15 , pp. 732-739
    • Wilt, V.M.1
  • 7
    • 0034186506 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quality-of-Life Assessment in Acute, Chronic, and Cancer Pain: A Pharmacist's Guide
    • See Ferro et al., supra note 2. The therapies listed as being most frequently the subject of collaborative agreements between pharmacists and physicians are those that can be monitored by a pharmacist through a test of drug efficacy (i.e., blood glucose for diabetes, peak flow meter for asthma, blood lipids for hyperlipidemia, and the INR [International Normalized Ratio] for anticoagulation therapy). The efficacy of drug treatment for pain can also be monitored by a pharmacist through patient interviews regarding the level of comfort and pain sensation. See A.E. Bonomi, R. Shikiar, and M.W. Legro, "Quality-of-Life Assessment in Acute, Chronic, and Cancer Pain: A Pharmacist's Guide," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 40 (2000): 402-415 (describing the instruments currently available to pharmacists, and other health-care providers, through which an assessment can be made of the impact of pain on quality of life).
    • (2000) Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association , vol.40 , pp. 402-415
    • Bonomi, A.E.1    Shikiar, R.2    Legro, M.W.3
  • 8
    • 85009004746 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See 21 C.F.R. §§ 1306.11, 1306.12 (1999)
    • See 21 C.F.R. §§ 1306.11, 1306.12 (1999).
  • 9
    • 85009003912 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See 21 C.F.R. § 1306.05 (1999)
    • See 21 C.F.R. § 1306.05 (1999).
  • 10
    • 34748847167 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does the Rx Look Suspicious?
    • See R. Gasbarro, "Does the Rx Look Suspicious?," American Druggist, 216 (1999): 48-51 (describing situations in which pharmacists have refused valid prescriptions, and advising pharmacists to attempt verification of a suspicious prescription before refusing to fill it). See also J.C. Vivian and D.B. Brushwood, "Monitoring Prescriptions for Legitimacy," American Pharmacy, 31, no. 9 (1991): 32-35 (describing the correlation between overly conservative pharmacy practice in avoidance of inappropriate dispensing and decreased access to pain medications for patients who have a legitimate need). Recent research has concluded that better communication between pharmacists and physicians may be necessary to enhance legitimate medical practice. B.D. Greenwald and E.J. Narcessian, "Opioids for Managing Patients with Chronic Pain: Community Pharmacists' Perspectives and Concerns," Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 17 (1999): 369-375.
    • (1999) American Druggist , vol.216 , pp. 48-51
    • Gasbarro, R.1
  • 11
    • 0026230772 scopus 로고
    • Monitoring Prescriptions for Legitimacy
    • See R. Gasbarro, "Does the Rx Look Suspicious?," American Druggist, 216 (1999): 48-51 (describing situations in which pharmacists have refused valid prescriptions, and advising pharmacists to attempt verification of a suspicious prescription before refusing to fill it). See also J.C. Vivian and D.B. Brushwood, "Monitoring Prescriptions for Legitimacy," American Pharmacy, 31, no. 9 (1991): 32-35 (describing the correlation between overly conservative pharmacy practice in avoidance of inappropriate dispensing and decreased access to pain medications for patients who have a legitimate need). Recent research has concluded that better communication between pharmacists and physicians may be necessary to enhance legitimate medical practice. B.D. Greenwald and E.J. Narcessian, "Opioids for Managing Patients with Chronic Pain: Community Pharmacists' Perspectives and Concerns," Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 17 (1999): 369-375.
    • (1991) American Pharmacy , vol.31 , Issue.9 , pp. 32-35
    • Vivian, J.C.1    Brushwood, D.B.2
  • 12
    • 0032915146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Opioids for Managing Patients with Chronic Pain: Community Pharmacists' Perspectives and Concerns
    • See R. Gasbarro, "Does the Rx Look Suspicious?," American Druggist, 216 (1999): 48-51 (describing situations in which pharmacists have refused valid prescriptions, and advising pharmacists to attempt verification of a suspicious prescription before refusing to fill it). See also J.C. Vivian and D.B. Brushwood, "Monitoring Prescriptions for Legitimacy," American Pharmacy, 31, no. 9 (1991): 32-35 (describing the correlation between overly conservative pharmacy practice in avoidance of inappropriate dispensing and decreased access to pain medications for patients who have a legitimate need). Recent research has concluded that better communication between pharmacists and physicians may be necessary to enhance legitimate medical practice. B.D. Greenwald and E.J. Narcessian, "Opioids for Managing Patients with Chronic Pain: Community Pharmacists' Perspectives and Concerns," Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 17 (1999): 369-375.
    • (1999) Journal of Pain and Symptom Management , vol.17 , pp. 369-375
    • Greenwald, B.D.1    Narcessian, E.J.2
  • 14
    • 0001854462 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Intractable Pain Policy: Current Status
    • March/April
    • See D.E. Joranson and A.M. Gilson, "State Intractable Pain Policy: Current Status," APS Bulletin (March/April, 1997): 7-9 (documenting a trend toward greater tolerance of opioid use in intractable pain). See also A.E. Bonomi et al., "Cancer Pain Management: Barriers, Trends and the Role of the Pharmacist," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 39 (1999): 558-566 (describing an increased sense of freedom that health-care providers now have in the prescribing and dispensing of opioid analgesics to cancer patients).
    • (1997) APS Bulletin , pp. 7-9
    • Joranson, D.E.1    Gilson, A.M.2
  • 15
    • 0033160962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cancer Pain Management: Barriers, Trends and the Role of the Pharmacist
    • See D.E. Joranson and A.M. Gilson, "State Intractable Pain Policy: Current Status," APS Bulletin (March/April, 1997): 7-9 (documenting a trend toward greater tolerance of opioid use in intractable pain). See also A.E. Bonomi et al., "Cancer Pain Management: Barriers, Trends and the Role of the Pharmacist," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 39 (1999): 558-566 (describing an increased sense of freedom that health-care providers now have in the prescribing and dispensing of opioid analgesics to cancer patients).
    • (1999) Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association , vol.39 , pp. 558-566
    • Bonomi, A.E.1
  • 16
    • 0034611680 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'We Don't Carry That' - Failure of Pharmacies in Predominantly Nonwhite Neighborhoods to Stock Opioid Analgesics
    • See R.S. Morrison et al., "'We Don't Carry That' - Failure of Pharmacies in Predominantly Nonwhite Neighborhoods to Stock Opioid Analgesics," New Engl. J. Med., 342 (2000): 1023-1026 (reporting that of the pharmacies surveyed in the New York City area, 51 percent did not have in stock sufficient opioid supplies to provide adequate treatment for a single patient with severe pain).
    • (2000) New Engl. J. Med. , vol.342 , pp. 1023-1026
    • Morrison, R.S.1
  • 17
    • 0003735092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Madison, Wisconsin: The Pain & Policy Studies Group, University of Wisconsin Comprehensive Cancer Center
    • See D.E. Joranson, A.M. Gilson, K.M. Ryan, M.A. Maurer, J.A. Nischik, and J.M. Nelson, Achieving Balance in Federal and State Pain Policy: A Guide to Evaluation (Madison, Wisconsin: The Pain & Policy Studies Group, University of Wisconsin Comprehensive Cancer Center, 2000) (a catalogue of the changes made by state legislatures and administrative agencies to improve the quality of pain management through clearer and more tolerant legal rules). It is available on-line at 〈http://www.med.wisc.edu/ painpolicy/eguide2000/pdf/Evlguide.pdf〉.
    • (2000) Achieving Balance in Federal and State Pain Policy: A Guide to Evaluation
    • Joranson, D.E.1    Gilson, A.M.2    Ryan, K.M.3    Maurer, M.A.4    Nischik, J.A.5    Nelson, J.M.6
  • 18
    • 85009003086 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Florida law now provides that health-care professionals may substitute continuing education on "end-of-life care and palliative health care" for the mandatory continuing education on AIDS/HIV, as long as the licensee has completed an approved AIDS/HIV course in the immediately preceding relicensure period. Fla. Stat. 455.604 (1999).
  • 19
    • 0030321724 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Improving Pain Management Through Policy Making and Education for Medical Regulators
    • The problem of informal policies-in-practice is compounded when regulators themselves either do not know the policies-on-paper or they fail to communicate them well to the regulated industry. This problem can, at least partially, be addressed through educational programs geared for regulators. See D.E. Joranson and A.M. Gilson, "Improving Pain Management Through Policy Making and Education for Medical Regulators," Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 24 (1996): 344-47.
    • (1996) Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , vol.24 , pp. 344-347
    • Joranson, D.E.1    Gilson, A.M.2
  • 20
    • 0342394555 scopus 로고
    • Impact of Drug Abuse on Legitimate Drug Use
    • See G.R. Haislip, "Impact of Drug Abuse on Legitimate Drug Use," Advances in Pain Research and Therapy, 11 (1989): 205-211 (concluding that the law is not a problem in providing an adequate supply of drugs, particularly narcotics, to patients for the treatment of intractable pain). DEA regulations formally acknowledge this perspective in a section that addresses availability of pain management medications: "This section is not intended to impose any limitations on a physician or authorized hospital staff ... to administer or dispense narcotic drugs to persons with intractable pain in which no relief or cure is possible or none has been found after reasonable efforts." 21 C.F.R. § 1306.07(c) (1999).
    • (1989) Advances in Pain Research and Therapy , vol.11 , pp. 205-211
    • Haislip, G.R.1
  • 21
    • 84970332089 scopus 로고
    • The Impact of Controlled Substance Federal Regulations on the Practice of Pharmacy
    • See F.H. Branding, "The Impact of Controlled Substance Federal Regulations on the Practice of Pharmacy," Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 8 (1995): 130-137 (noting the significant relationship between the system of controlled substance distribution and the system of pharmacy practice). The effect on pharmacy practice of zealous enforcement has resulted in requests for relief from the U.S. Congress. See M. Conlan, "Lay Off! Pharmacy's Complaints About DEA Find an Ear in Congress," Drug Topics, 142 (September 7, 1998): 70-71. The DEA has acknowledged the need to maintain a positive relationship with the pharmacy profession and to make life easier for patients and for pharmacists by removing burdensome and unnecessary regulations. See J. Chi, "DEA Scrambles to Repair Image, Build Electronic System," Drug Topics, 143 (April 5, 1999): 54.
    • (1995) Journal of Pharmacy Practice , vol.8 , pp. 130-137
    • Branding, F.H.1
  • 22
    • 0032494232 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lay Off! Pharmacy's Complaints about DEA Find an Ear in Congress
    • September 7
    • See F.H. Branding, "The Impact of Controlled Substance Federal Regulations on the Practice of Pharmacy," Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 8 (1995): 130-137 (noting the significant relationship between the system of controlled substance distribution and the system of pharmacy practice). The effect on pharmacy practice of zealous enforcement has resulted in requests for relief from the U.S. Congress. See M. Conlan, "Lay Off! Pharmacy's Complaints About DEA Find an Ear in Congress," Drug Topics, 142 (September 7, 1998): 70-71. The DEA has acknowledged the need to maintain a positive relationship with the pharmacy profession and to make life easier for patients and for pharmacists by removing burdensome and unnecessary regulations. See J. Chi, "DEA Scrambles to Repair Image, Build Electronic System," Drug Topics, 143 (April 5, 1999): 54.
    • (1998) Drug Topics , vol.142 , pp. 70-71
    • Conlan, M.1
  • 23
    • 0033526170 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DEA Scrambles to Repair Image, Build Electronic System
    • April 5
    • See F.H. Branding, "The Impact of Controlled Substance Federal Regulations on the Practice of Pharmacy," Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 8 (1995): 130-137 (noting the significant relationship between the system of controlled substance distribution and the system of pharmacy practice). The effect on pharmacy practice of zealous enforcement has resulted in requests for relief from the U.S. Congress. See M. Conlan, "Lay Off! Pharmacy's Complaints About DEA Find an Ear in Congress," Drug Topics, 142 (September 7, 1998): 70-71. The DEA has acknowledged the need to maintain a positive relationship with the pharmacy profession and to make life easier for patients and for pharmacists by removing burdensome and unnecessary regulations. See J. Chi, "DEA Scrambles to Repair Image, Build Electronic System," Drug Topics, 143 (April 5, 1999): 54.
    • (1999) Drug Topics , vol.143 , pp. 54
    • Chi, J.1
  • 24
    • 85009008667 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 21 C.F.R. § 1306.04 (1999)
    • 21 C.F.R. § 1306.04 (1999).
  • 25
    • 85009004748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 555 F.2d 258 (5th Cir. 1979)
    • 555 F.2d 258 (5th Cir. 1979).
  • 26
    • 85009005791 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 972 P.2d 395 (Utah 1998)
    • 972 P.2d 395 (Utah 1998).
  • 27
    • 85008994463 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Vermont & 110th Med. Arts Pharmacy v. Board of Pharmacy, 177 Cal. Rptr. 807 (Cal. Ct. App. 1981)
    • See Vermont & 110th Med. Arts Pharmacy v. Board of Pharmacy, 177 Cal. Rptr. 807 (Cal. Ct. App. 1981).
  • 28
    • 85008993339 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Ridley v. Goldman, No. 84-C4580, slip op. (N.D. Ill. Oct. 23, 1984) (available on LEXIS)
    • See Ridley v. Goldman, No. 84-C4580, slip op. (N.D. Ill. Oct. 23, 1984) (available on LEXIS).
  • 29
    • 85009003090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Karrick v. Johnson, 659 So. 2d 77 (Ala. 1995)
    • See, e.g., Karrick v. Johnson, 659 So. 2d 77 (Ala. 1995).
  • 31
    • 0035290019 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pharmacists' Knowledge of and Attitudes Toward Opioid Pain Medications in Relation to Federal and State Policies
    • See D.E. Joranson and A.M. Gilson, "Pharmacists' Knowledge of and Attitudes Toward Opioid Pain Medications in Relation to Federal and State Policies," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 41 (2001): 213.
    • (2001) Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association , vol.41 , pp. 213
    • Joranson, D.E.1    Gilson, A.M.2
  • 32
    • 0032949174 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Disease Management: State of the Art and Future Directions
    • Pharmacists who participate as members of disease management teams can improve outcomes for patients and reduce costs of therapy. See E.P. Armstrong, "Disease Management: State of the Art and Future Directions," Clinical Therapeutics, 21 (1999): 593-609. Educational activities by pharmacists have been shown to improve the satisfaction of patients with their pain management. See S.L. Ravnan, "Unique Pain Management Staff Education Program in a Community Hospital," Hospital Pharmacy, 35 (2000): 498-503.
    • (1999) Clinical Therapeutics , vol.21 , pp. 593-609
    • Armstrong, E.P.1
  • 33
    • 0034081675 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Unique Pain Management Staff Education Program in a Community Hospital
    • Pharmacists who participate as members of disease management teams can improve outcomes for patients and reduce costs of therapy. See E.P. Armstrong, "Disease Management: State of the Art and Future Directions," Clinical Therapeutics, 21 (1999): 593-609. Educational activities by pharmacists have been shown to improve the satisfaction of patients with their pain management. See S.L. Ravnan, "Unique Pain Management Staff Education Program in a Community Hospital," Hospital Pharmacy, 35 (2000): 498-503.
    • (2000) Hospital Pharmacy , vol.35 , pp. 498-503
    • Ravnan, S.L.1
  • 34
    • 0029130580 scopus 로고
    • Drug-related Morbidity and Mortality: A Cost-Of-Illness Model
    • See J.A. Johnson and J.L. Bootman, "Drug-related Morbidity and Mortality: A Cost-Of-Illness Model," Archives of Internal Medicine, 155 (1995): 1949-1956.
    • (1995) Archives of Internal Medicine , vol.155 , pp. 1949-1956
    • Johnson, J.A.1    Bootman, J.L.2
  • 35
    • 85008980336 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Huang, infra notes 35-36 and accompanying text
    • See Huang, infra notes 35-36 and accompanying text.
  • 36
    • 85008985782 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 602 F. Supp. 399 (S.D. Ill. 1985)
    • 602 F. Supp. 399 (S.D. Ill. 1985).
  • 37
    • 85008980228 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 782 P.2d 1045 (Wash. 1989)
    • 782 P.2d 1045 (Wash. 1989).
  • 38
    • 85008994462 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 1051
    • See id. at 1051.
  • 39
    • 85008980335 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 1053
    • See id. at 1053.
  • 40
    • 85008980227 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 642 N.E.2d 514 (Ind. 1994)
    • 642 N.E.2d 514 (Ind. 1994).
  • 41
    • 85009009085 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 519
    • See id. at 519.
  • 42
    • 0033205158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From Pill-Counting to Patient Care: Pharmacists' Standard of Care in Negligence Law
    • The expansion of pharmacy practice into new areas of responsibility has not consistently been supported by judicial opinions that recognize an expanded legal duty for pharmacists to protect patients from problems with drug therapy. However, the prevailing view among scholarly commentators has been that legal duties for pharmacists should expand to include patient education and the prevention of problems with drug therapy. See, e.g., L. Fleischer, "From Pill-Counting to Patient Care: Pharmacists' Standard of Care in Negligence Law," Fordham Law Review, 68 (1999): 165-187; A.G. Myhra, "The Pharmacist's Duty to Warn in Texas," University of Texas Review of Litigation, 18 (1999): 28-82; R.P. Asbury, "Comment: Pharmacist Liability: The Doors of Litigation are Opening," Santa Clara Law Review, 40 (2000): 907-939.
    • (1999) Fordham Law Review , vol.68 , pp. 165-187
    • Fleischer, L.1
  • 43
    • 0033205158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Pharmacist's Duty to Warn in Texas
    • The expansion of pharmacy practice into new areas of responsibility has not consistently been supported by judicial opinions that recognize an expanded legal duty for pharmacists to protect patients from problems with drug therapy. However, the prevailing view among scholarly commentators has been that legal duties for pharmacists should expand to include patient education and the prevention of problems with drug therapy. See, e.g., L. Fleischer, "From Pill-Counting to Patient Care: Pharmacists' Standard of Care in Negligence Law," Fordham Law Review, 68 (1999): 165-187; A.G. Myhra, "The Pharmacist's Duty to Warn in Texas," University of Texas Review of Litigation, 18 (1999): 28-82; R.P. Asbury, "Comment: Pharmacist Liability: The Doors of Litigation are Opening," Santa Clara Law Review, 40 (2000): 907-939.
    • (1999) University of Texas Review of Litigation , vol.18 , pp. 28-82
    • Myhra, A.G.1
  • 44
    • 0033205158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Comment: Pharmacist Liability: The Doors of Litigation are Opening
    • The expansion of pharmacy practice into new areas of responsibility has not consistently been supported by judicial opinions that recognize an expanded legal duty for pharmacists to protect patients from problems with drug therapy. However, the prevailing view among scholarly commentators has been that legal duties for pharmacists should expand to include patient education and the prevention of problems with drug therapy. See, e.g., L. Fleischer, "From Pill-Counting to Patient Care: Pharmacists' Standard of Care in Negligence Law," Fordham Law Review, 68 (1999): 165-187; A.G. Myhra, "The Pharmacist's Duty to Warn in Texas," University of Texas Review of Litigation, 18 (1999): 28-82; R.P. Asbury, "Comment: Pharmacist Liability: The Doors of Litigation are Opening," Santa Clara Law Review, 40 (2000): 907-939.
    • (2000) Santa Clara Law Review , vol.40 , pp. 907-939
    • Asbury, R.P.1
  • 45
    • 85009005143 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1396r-8 (1999)
    • Codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1396r-8 (1999).
  • 46
    • 0032421861 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1990: Redefining Pharmacists' Legal Responsibilities
    • See S.W. Huang, "The Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1990: Redefining Pharmacists' Legal Responsibilities," American Journal of Law & Medicine, XXIV, no. 4 (1998): 417-442.
    • (1998) American Journal of Law & Medicine , vol.24 , Issue.4 , pp. 417-442
    • Huang, S.W.1
  • 47
    • 85009003089 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 434-444
    • See id. at 434-444.
  • 48
    • 85008980319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1 S.W.3d 519 (Mo. Ct. App. 1999)
    • 1 S.W.3d 519 (Mo. Ct. App. 1999).
  • 49
    • 85009003065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 524
    • See id. at 524.
  • 50
    • 85008994433 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 523, n.5
    • See id. at 523, n.5.
  • 51
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    • See Doucette et al., supra note 22
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    • See Gilson et al., supra note 23.
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    • See Grainger-Rousseau et al., supra note 3
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    • See J.A. Green and M.A. Munger, "On the Fringes," Pharmacotherapy, 9 (1989): 95-98 (describing the lag time between acceptance by pharmacists of new responsibilities for patient care and recognition of those responsibilities under administrative laws that govern the practice of pharmacy).
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    • Green, J.A.1    Munger, M.A.2
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    • See Bonomi et al., supra note 9
    • See Bonomi et al., supra note 9.
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    • See, e.g., P. Temin, "The Origin of Compulsory Drug Prescriptions," Journal of Law & Economics, 22 (1979): 91-105 (describing the almost accidental separation of medicinal drugs into two classes - Prescription and Non-Prescription - without statutory authority, but also without objection).
    • (1979) Journal of Law & Economics , vol.22 , pp. 91-105
    • Temin, P.1
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    • See id.
    • See id.
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    • Deregulating Mandatory Medical Prescription
    • See, e.g., C.N. Mitchell, "Deregulating Mandatory Medical Prescription," American Journal of Law & Medicine, XII, no. 2 (1986): 207-239 (arguing that public safety needs do not and cannot justify the mandatory prescription controls that are in place today).
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    • See, e.g., L.W. Rook, "Listening to Zantac: The Role of Non-Prescription Drugs in Health Care Reform and the Federal Tax System," Tennessee Law Review, 64 (1994): 107-153 (describing the growth in drugs being switched from prescription to non-prescription, status, and arguing for insurance coverage of non-prescription drugs).
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    • Billing Third Party Payers for Pharmaceutical Care Services
    • See Grainger-Rousseau et al., supra note 3 (describing improved outcomes for patients as a result of collaborative practice). The improvements in outcomes for patients produced by collaborative practice have led to reimbursement for pharmacy services within collaborative practices. See S. Poirer, D.E. Buffington, and G.A Memoli, "Billing Third Party Payers for Pharmaceutical Care Services," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 39 (1999): 50-64.
    • (1999) Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association , vol.39 , pp. 50-64
    • Poirer, S.1    Buffington, D.E.2    Memoli, G.A.3
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    • 508 A.2d 1247 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1986)
    • 508 A.2d 1247 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1986).
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    • Id. at 1250
    • Id. at 1250.
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    • See Grainger-Rousseau et al., supra note 3
    • See Grainger-Rousseau et al., supra note 3.
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    • State Pharmacy Regulators' Opinions on Regulating Pharmaceutical Care Outcomes
    • State boards of pharmacy have begun to shift their emphasis from the structure and process of pharmacy practice to the outcomes that pharmacists produce in their practice. Regulatory recognition of collaborative practice is just one example of the move toward outcomes-oriented regulation. See D.P Nau and D.B. Brushwood, "State Pharmacy Regulators' Opinions on Regulating Pharmaceutical Care Outcomes," Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 32 (1998): 642-647.
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    • Quality-of-Life Assessment in Acute, Chronic, and Cancer Pain: A Pharmacist's Guide
    • See Bonomi et al., supra note 9. See also Bonomi et al., "Quality-of-Life Assessment in Acute, Chronic, and Cancer Pain: A Pharmacist's Guide," Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 40 (2000): 402-416 (describing the increasingly important role pharmacists play in pain management and the importance of quality-of-life assessment in the management of pain).
    • (2000) Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association , vol.40 , pp. 402-416
    • Bonomi1
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    • See 21 C.F.R. § 1306.13 (1999)
    • See 21 C.F.R. § 1306.13 (1999).
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    • See 21 C.F.R. § 1306.11 (1999)
    • See 21 C.F.R. § 1306.11 (1999).
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    • A Prescription for Pain: The Emerging Standard of Care for Pain Management
    • See B.A. Rich, "A Prescription for Pain: The Emerging Standard of Care For Pain Management," William Mitchell Law Review, 26 (2000): 1-68 (suggesting that a prescriber who has been accused of inappropriate use of opioid analgesics will be able to successfully defend against the accusation by referring to evidence-based clinical practice guidelines validated by expert testimony).
    • (2000) William Mitchell Law Review , vol.26 , pp. 1-68
    • Rich, B.A.1


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